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187S 


PEAT    AND     ITS     USES, 


AS 


FERTILIZER    AND     FUEL 


BY 
SAMUEL   W.    JOHNSON.  A.  MM 

PROFESSOR    OF    ANALYTICAL    AXD    AGRICULTURAL    CHEMISTRY,    YALE    COLLEGE, 


TJ  S  T  K- ^V  T  E  D. 


NEW-YORK: 

ORANGE    JUDD     &     COMPANY. 
245  BROADWAY. 


Pig 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1866,  by 
ORANGE  JUDD  &  CO., 

At  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New- York. 


LOVEJOY  &  SON", 

ELECTROTYPERS  AND  STEREOTYPERS 
15  Vande water  street  N.   f . 


TO     MI  Y 

MY  EABLIEST  AND  BEST 

INSTRUCTOR    IN    RURAL    AFFAIRS, 
THIS    VOLUME 

IS    GRATEFULLY    DEDICATED. 

S.    W.    J. 


CONTENTS. 


Introduction      ..   — vi 

PART  I.— ORIGIN,  VARIETIES,  AND  CHEMICAL  CHARACTERS  OF  PEAT. 

PAGE 

1.  What  is  Peat? 9 

2.  Conditions  of  its  Formation —  9 

3.  Different  Kinds  of  Peat - 14 

Swamp  Muck 17 

Salt  Mud IS 

4.  Chemical  Characters  and  Composition  of  Peat 18 

a.  Organic  or  combustible  part «.  .....19 

Ulmic  and  Humic  Acids. 19 

Ulrnin  ami  Iluinin — Crenic  and  Apocrenic  Acids 20 

Ulmates  and  Hurnates 21 

Crenates  and  Apoc%renates  22 

Gein  and  Geic  Acid — Elementary  Composition  of  Peat 23 

Ultimate  Composition  of  the  Constituents  of  Peat 25 

b.  Mineral  Part-Ashes 25 

5.  Chemical  Changes  that  occur  in  the  Formation  of  Peat 26 

PART  II.— ON  THE  AGRICULTURAL  USES  OF  PEAT  AND  SWAMP  MUCK. 

1.  Characters  that  adapt  Peat  for  Agricultural  Use 28 

A.  Physical  or  Amending  Characters 28 

I.  Absorbent  Power  for  Water,  as  Liquid  and  Vapor 31 

II.  "  "       for  Ammonia 32 

III. Influence  in  Disintegrating  the  Soil 34 

IV.  Influence  on  the  Temperature  of  Soils 37 

B.  Fertilizing  Characters 38 

I.  Fertilizing  Effects  of  the  Organic  Matters,  excluding  Nitrogen 38 

1.  Organic  Matters  as  Direct  Food  to  Plants 38 

2.  Organic  Matters  as  Indirect  Food  to  Plants ....40 

3.  Nitrogen,  including  Ammonia  and  Nitric  Acid 42 

II.  Fertilizing  Effects  of  the  Ashes  of  Peat 46 

III.  Peculiarities  in  the  Decay  of  Peat 50 

IV.  Comparison  of  Peat  with  Stable  Manure 51 

2.  Characters  of  Peat  that  are  detrimental,  or  that  need  correction. 54 

I.  Possible  Bad  Effects  on  Heavy  Soils 54 

II.  Noxious  Ingredients 55 

a.  Vitriol  Peats 55 

ft.  Acidity—  c.  Resinous  Matters 57 

3.  Preparation  of  Peat  for  Agricultural  Use 57 

a.  Excavation. 57 

b.  Exposure,  or  Seasoning  59 

c.  Composting 62 

Compost  with  Stable  Manure 63 

"    Night  Soil 68 

•«  "     Guano 69 


VI  CONTENTS. 

(3.  c.)  Compost  with  Fish  and  other  Animal  Matters 70 

"  •'    Pota?h-)ye  &  Soda-ash  ,  Wood-ashes,  Shell-marl,  Lime..72 

"     Salt  and  Lime  Mixture 73 

u  '•     Carbonate  <>f  Lime.  Mortar,  etc 75 

4.  The  Author's  Experiments  with  Peat  Composts 77 

5.  Examination  of  Pe;it  with  reference  to  its  Agricultural  Value.. 81 

6.  Composition  of  Connecticut  Peats 84 

Method  of  Analysis 86 

Tables  of  Composition 88-89-90 

PART  III.— ON  PEAT  AS  FUEL. 

1.  Kinds  of  Peat  that  Make  the  Best  Fuel 92 

2.  Density  of  Peat 95 

3.  Heating  Power  of  Peat  as  Compared  with  Wood  and  Anthracite 96 

4.  Modes  of  Burning  Peat 102 

5.  Burning  of  Broken  Peat 103 

6.  Hygroscopic  Water  of  Peat-fuel 104 

7.  Shrinkage  105 

8.  Time  of  Excavation  and  Drying 105 

9.  Drainage 106 

10.  Cutting  of  Peat  for  Fuel— a.  Preparations  for  Cutting 107 

b.  Cutting  by  Hand;  with  Common  Spade  ;  German  Peat  Knife 108 

"       with  Irish  Slane— System  employed  in  East  Friesland 109 

c.  Machines  for  Cutting  Peat :  Brosowsky's  Machine  ;  Lepreux'sMachine.113 

11.  Dredging  of  Peat 115 

12.  Moulding  of  Peat  116 

13.  Preparation  of  Peat-fuel  by  Machinery,  etc 116 

A.  Condensation  by  Pressure 116 

a.  Of  Fresh  Peat 116 

Mannhardt's  Method 117 

The  Neustadt  Method  ...119 

b.  Of  Air-dried  Peat— Lithuanian  Process 120 

c.  Of  Hot-dried  Peat— G  Wynne's  Method;  Exter's  Method 121 

Elsberg's  Process 125 

B.  Condensation  w  ithout  Pressure 127 

a.  Of  Earthy  Peat 128 

Challeton's  Method,  at  Mennecy,  France 128 

"  li  Langenberg,  Prussia 130 

Robert's  "  Pekin,  N.  Y 132 

Siemens'  "  Boeblingen,  Wirtemberg 134 

b.  Condensation  of  Fibrous  Peat— Weber's  Method  ;  Hot-drying 135 

Gysser's  Method  and  Machine.   140 

c.  Condensation  of  Peat  of  all  Kinds— Schlickeysen's  Maehine 144 

Leavitt's  Peat  Mill,  Lexington,  Mass 146 

Ashcroft  &  Betteley's  Machine 148 

Veismann's  Machine,  Great  Britain 150 

Buckland's  "  "  151 

14.  Artificial  Drying  of  Peat 152 

15.  Peat  Coal 157 

1ft.  Metallurgical  Uses  of  Peat 162 

17.  Peat  as  a  Source  of  Illuminating  Gas     165 

18.  Examination  of  Peat  with  regard  toils  Value  as  Fuel 167 


INTRODUCTION. 


IN  the  years  1857  and  1858,  the  writer,  in  the  capacity  of  Chem 
ist  to  the  State  Agricultural  Society  of  Connecticut,  was  commis 
sioned  to  make  investigations  into  the  agricultural  uses  of  the  de 
posits  of  peat  or  swamp  muck  which  are  abundant  in  this  State ;  and, 
in  1858,  he  submitted  a  Report  to  Henry  A.  Dyer,  Esq.,  Correspond 
ing  Secretary  of  the  Society,  embodying  his  conclusions.  In  the 
present  work  the  valuable  portions  of  that  Report  have  been  recast, 
and,  with  addition  of  much  new  matter,  form  Parts  I.  and  II.  The 
remainder  of  the  book,  relating  to  the  preparation  and  employment 
of  peat  for  fuel,  &c.,  is  now  for  the  first  time  published,  and  is  in 
tended  to  give  a  faithful  account  of  the  results  of  the  experience 
that  has  been  acquired  in  Europe,  during  the  last  twenty-five  years, 
in  regard  to  the  important  subject  of  which  it  treats. 

The  employment  of  peat  as  an  amendment  and  absorbent  for  ag 
ricultural  purposes  has  proved  to  be  of  great  advantage  in  New- 
England  farming. 

It  is  not  to  be  doubted,  that,  as  fuel,  it  will  be  even  more  valuable 
than  as  a  fertilizer.  Our  peat-beds,  while  they  do  not  occupy  so 
much  territory  as  to  be  an  impediment  and  a  reproach  to  our  coun 
try,  as  they  have  been  to  Ireland,  are  yet  so  abundant  and  so  widely 
distributed  —  occurring  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Missouri,  along 
and  above  the  40th  parallel,  and  appearing  on  our  Eastern  Coast 
at  least  as  far  South  as  North  Carolina  *  — •  as  to  present,  at  num 
berless  points,  material,  which,  sooner  or  later,  will  serve  us  most 
usefully  when  other  fuel  has  become  scarce  and  costly. 

The  high  prices  which  coal  and  wood  have  commanded  for  sev 
eral  years  back  have  directed  attention  to  peat  fuel ;  and,  such  is 
the  adventurous  character  of  American  enterprise,  it  cannot  be 

*  The  great  Dismal  Swamp  is  a  grand  peat  bog,  and  doubtless  other  of  the 
swamps  of  the  coast,  as  far  south  as  Florida  and  the  Gulf,  are  of  the  same 
uharacter. 


VIII  INTRODUCTION. 

doubted  that  we  shall  rapidly  develop  and  improve  the  machinery 
for  producing  it.  As  has  always  been  the  case,  we  shall  waste  a 
vast  deal  of  time  and  money  in  contriving  machines  that  violate 
every  principle  of  mechanism  and  of  economy ;  but  the  results  of 
European  invention  furnish  a  safe  basis  from  which  to  set  out,  and 
we  have  among  us  the  genius  and  the  patience  that  shall  work  out 
the  perfect  method. 

It  may  well  be  urged  that  a  good  degree  of  caution  is  advisable 
in  entering  upon  the  peat  enterprise.  In  this  country  we  have  ex- 
liaustless  mines  of  the  best  coal,  which  can  be  afforded  at  a  very  low 
rate,  with  which  other  fuel  must  compete.  In  Germany,  where  the 
best  methods  of  working  peat  have  originated,  fuel  is  more  costly 
than  here ;  and  a  universal  and  intense  economy  there  prevails,  of 
which  we,  as  a  people,  have  no  conception. 

If,  as  the  Germans  themselves  admit,  the  peat  question  there  is 
still  a  nice  one  as  regards  the  test  of  dollars  and  cents,  it  is  obvious, 
that,  for  a  time,  we  must  "  hasten  slowly."  It  is  circumstances  that 
make  peat,  and  gold  as  well,  remunerative  or  otherwise  ;  and  these 
must  be  well  considered  in  each  individual  case.  Peat  is  the  name 
for  a  material  that  varies  extremely  in  its  quality,  and  this  quality 
should  be  investigated  carefully  before  going  to  work  upon  general 
deductions. 

In  my  account  of  the  various  processes  for  working  peat  by  ma 
chinery,  such  data  as  I  have  been  able  to  find  have  been  given  as 
to  cost  of  production.  These  data  are  however  very  imperfect,  and 
not  altogether  trustworthy,  in  direct  application  to  American  con 
ditions.  The  cheapness  of  labor  in  Europe  is  an  item  to  our  dis 
advantage  in  interpreting  foreign  estimates.  I  incline  to  the  belief 
that  this  is  more  than  offset  among  us  by  the  quality  of  our  labor, 
by  the  energy  of  our  administration,  by  the  efficiency  of  our  over 
seeing,  and,  especially,  by  our  greater  skill  in  the  adaptation  of 
mechanical  appliances.  While  counselling  caution,  I  also  recom 
mend  enterprise  in  developing  our  resources  in  this  important  par 
ticular  ;  knowing  full  well,  however,  that  what  I  can  say  in  its 
favor  will  scarcely  add  to  the  impulse  already  apparent  among  m\ 

countrymen. 

SAMUEL  W.  JOHNSON. 

Sheffield  Scientific  School,  ) 
Yale  College,  June,  1866.     J 


PART   I. 

THE   ORIGIN,  VARIETIES,   AND   CHEMICAL  CHAR 
ACTERS   OF  PEAT. 


1.  What  is  Peat? 

By  the  general  term  Peat,  we  understand  the  organic 
matter  or  vegetable  soil  of  bogs,  swamps,  beaver-meadows 
and  salt-marshes. 

It  consists  of  substances  that  have  resulted  from  the 
decay  of  many  generations  of  aquatic  or  marsh  plants, 
as  mosses,  sedges,  coarse  grasses,  and  a  great  variety  of 
shrubs,  mixed  with  more  or  less  mineral  substances, 
derived  from  these  plants,  or  in  many  cases  blown  or 
washed  in  from  the  surrounding  lands. 

2.  The  conditions  under  which  Peat  is  formed. 

In  this  country  the  production  of  Peat  from  fallen  and 
decaying  plants,  depends  upon  the  presence  of  so  much 
water  as  to  cover  or  saturate  the  vegetable  matters,  and 
thereby  hinder  the  full  access  of  air.  Saturation  with 
water  also  has  the  effect  to  maintain  the  decaying  matters 
1* 


10  PEAT    AXD    ITS    USES. 

at  a  low  temperature,  and  by  these  two  causes  in  combi 
nation,  the  process  of  decny  is  made  to  proceed  with 
great  slowness,  and  the  solid  products  of  -  such  slow  de 
cay,  are  compounds  that  themselves  resist  decay,  and 
hence  they  accumulate. 

In  the  United  States  there  appears  to  be  nothing  like 
the  extensive  moors  or  heaths,  that  abound  in  Ireland, 
Scotland,  the  north  of  England,  North  Germany,  Holland, 
and  the  elevated  plains  of  Bavaria,  which  are  mostly 
level  or  gently  sloping  tracts  of  country,  covered  with 
peat  or  turf  to  a  depth  often  of  20,  and  sometimes  of  40, 
or  more,  feet.  In  this  country  it  is  only  in  low  places, 
where  streams  become  obstructed  and  form  swamps,  or  in 
bays  and  inlets  on  salt  water,  where  the  flow  of  the  tide 
furnishes  the  requisite  moisture,  that  our  peat-beds  occur. 
If  we  go  north-east  as  far  as  Anticosti,  Labrador,  or  New 
foundland,  we  find  true  moors.  In  these  regions  have  been 
found  a  few  localities  of  the  Heather  (Cafluna  vulgaris), 
which  is  so  conspicuous  a  plant  on  the  moors  of  Europe, 
but  which  is  wanting  in  the  peat-beds  of  the  United 
States. 

In  the  countries  above  named,  the  weather  is  more  uni 
form  than  here,  the  air  is  more  moist,  and  the  excessive 
heat  of  our  summers  is  scarcely  known.  Such  is  the 
greater  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  that  the  bog-mosses, 
—  the  so-called  Sphagnums,  —  which  have  a  wonderful 
avidity  for  moisture,  (hence  used  for  packing  plants 
which  require  to  be  kept  moist  on  journeys),  are  able  to 
keep  fresh  and  in  growth  during  the  entire  summer. 
These  mosses  decay  below,  and  throw  out  new  vegetation 
above,  and  thus  produce  a  bog,  especially  wherever  the 
earth  is  springy.  It  is  in  this  way  that  in  those  countries, 
moors  and  peat-bogs  actually  grow,  increasing  in  depth 
and  area,  from  year  to  year,  and  raise  themselves  above 
the  level  of  the  surrounding  country. 


ORIGIN    AND    VARIETIES.  11 

Prof.  Marsh  informs  the  writer  that  he  has  seen  in  Ire 
land,  near  the  north-west  coast,  a  granite  hill,  capped 
with  a  peat-bed,  several  feet  in  thickness.  In  the  Bavari 
an  highlands  similar  cases  have  been  observed,  in  locali 
ties  where  the  atmosphere  and  the  ground  are  kept  moist 
enough  for  the  growth  of  moss  by  the  extraordinary  prev 
alence  of  fogs.  Many  of  the  European  moors  rise  more 
or  less  above  the  level  of  their  borders  towards  the  centre, 
often  to  a  height  of  10  or  20  and  sometimes  of  30  feet. 
They  are  hence  known  in  Germany  as  high  moors  (Hoch- 
moore)  to  distinguish  from  the  level  or  dishing  meadow- 
moors,  (  Wiesenmoore.)  The  peat-producing  vegetation 
of  the  former  is  chiefly  moss  and  heather,  of  the  latter 
coarse  grasses  and  sedges. 

In  Great  Britain  the  reclamdtoion  of  a  moor  is  usually 
an  expensive  operation,  for  which  not  only  much  drain 
ing,  but  actual  cutting  out  and  burning  of  the  compact 
peat  is  necessary. 

The  warmth  of  our  summers  and  the  aryness  of  our 
atmosphere  prevent  the  accumulation  of  peat  above  the 
highest  level  of  the  standing  water  of  our  marshes,  and 
so  soon  as  the  marshes  are  well  drained,  the  peat  ceases 
to  form,  and  in  most  cases  the  swamp  may  be  easily  con 
verted  into  good  meadow  land. 

Springy  hill-sides,  which  in  cooler,  moister  climates 
would  become  moors,  here  dry  up  in  summer  to  such  an 
extent  that  no  peat  can  be  formed  upon  them. 

As  already  observed,  our  peat  is  found  in  low  places. 
In  many  instances  its  accumulation  began  by  the  obstruc 
tion  of  a  stream.  To  that  remarkable  creature,  the  bea 
ver,  we  owe  many  of  our  peat-bogs.  These  animals,  from 
time  immemorial,  have  built  their  dams  across  rivers  so  as 
to  flood  the  adjacent  -"forest.  In  the  rich  leaf-mold  at  the 
water's  verge,  and  in  the  cool  shade  of  the  standing  trees, 
has  begun  the  growth  of  the  sphagnums,  sedges,  and  va- 


12  PEAT    AND    ITS    USES. 

rious  purely  aquatic  plants.  These  in  their  annual  decay 
have  shortly  filled  the  shallow  borders  of  the  stagnating 
water,  and  by  slow  encroachments,  going  on  through 
many  years,  they  have  occupied  the  deeper  portions,  aided 
by  the  trees,  which,  perishing,  give  their  fallen  branches 
and  trunks,  towards  completing  the  work.  The  trees  de 
cay  and  fall,  and  become  entirely  converted  into  peat ;  or, 
as  not  unfrequently  happens,  especially  in  case  of  resinous 
woods,  preserve  their  form,  and  to  some  extent  their 
soundness. 

In  a  similar  manner,  ponds  and  lakes  are  encroached  up 
on  ;  or,  if  shallow,  entirely  filled  up  by  peat  deposits.  In  the 
Great  Forest  of  Northern  New  York,  the  voyager  has 
abundant  opportunity  to  observe  the  formation  of  peat- 
swamps,  both  as  a  result  of  beaver  dams,  and  of  the  fill 
ing  of  shallow  ponds,  or  the  narrowing  of  level  river 
courses.  The  formation  of  peat  in  water  of  some  depth 
greatly  depends  upon  the  growth  of  aquatic  plants,  other 
than  those  already  mentioned.  In  our  Eastern  States  the 
most  conspicuous  are  the  Arrow-head,  (Sagittaria) ;  the 
Pickerel  Weed,  (Pontederia y)  Duck  Meat,  (Lemna  /) 
Pond  Weed,  (Potamogeton  /)  various  Polygonums, 
brothers  of  Buckwheat  and  Smart-weed ;  and  especi 
ally  the  Pond  Lilies,  (JVymphcea  and  Nuphar.)  The 
latter  grow  in  water  four  or  five  feet  deep,  their 
leaves  and  long  stems  are  thick  and  fleshy,  and  their 
roots,  which  fill  the  oozy  mud,  are  often  several  inches  in 
diameter.  Their  decaying  leaves  and  stems,  and  their 
huge  roots,  living  or  dead,  accumulate  below  and  gradu 
ally  raise  the  bed  of  the  pond.  Their  living  foliage  which 
often  covers  the  water  almost  completely  for  acres,  be 
comes  a  shelter  or  support  for  other  more  delicate  aquatic 
plants  and  sphagnums,  which,  creeping  out  from  the 
shore,  may  so  develop  as  to  form  a  floating  carpet, 
whereon  the  leaves  of  the  neighboring  wood,  and  dust 


ORIGIN   AND   VARIETIES.  13 

scattered  by  the  wind  collect,  bearing  down  the  mass, 
which  again  increases  above,  or  is  reproduced  until  the 
water  is  filled  to  its  bottom  with  vegetable  matter. 

It  is  not  rare  to  find  in  our  bogs,  patches  of  moss  of 
considerable  area  concealing  deep  water  with  a  treacher 
ous  appearance  of  solidity,  as  the  hunter  and  botanist 
have  often  found  to  their  cost.  In  countries  of  more 
humid  atmosphere,  they  are  more  common  and  attain 
greater  dimensions.  In  Zealand  the  surfaces  of  ponds  are 
so  frequently  covered  with  floating  beds  of  moss,  often 
stout  enough  to  bear  a  man,  that  they  have  there  received 
a  special  name  " Hangesak"  In  the  Russian  Ural,  there 
occur  lakes  whose  floating  covers  of  moss  often  extend 
five  or  six  feet  above  the  water,  and  are  so  firm  that  roads- 
are  made  across  them,  and  forests  of  large  fir-trees  find 
support.  These  immense  accumulations  are  in  fact  float 
ing  moors,  consisting  entirely  of  peat,  save  the  living  veg 
etation  at  the  surface. 

Sometimes  these  floating  peat-beds,  bearing  trees,  are 
separated  by  winds  from  their  connection  with  the  shore, 
and  become  swimming  peat  islands.  In  a  small  lake  near 
Eisenach,  in  Central  Germany,  is  a  swimming  island  of 
this  sort.  Its  diameter  is  40  rods,  and  it  consists  of  a 
felt-like  mass  of  peat,  three  to  five  feet  in  depth,  covered 
above  by  sphagnums  and  a  great  variety  of  aquatic  plants. 
A  few  birches  and  dwarf  firs  grow  in  this  peat,  binding  it 
together  by  their  roots,  and  when  the  wind  blows,  they 
act  as  sails,  so  that  the  island  is  constantly  moving  about 
upon  the  lake. 

On  the  Neusiedler  lake,  in  Hungary,  is  said  to  float  a 
peat  island  having  an  area  of  six  square  miles,  and  on 
lakes  of  the  high  Mexican  Plateau  are  similar  islands 
which,  long  ago,  were  converted  in  fruitful  gardens. 


14  PEAT   AND   ITS    USES. 

3.  The  different  kinds  of  Peat. 

Very  great  differences  in  the  characters  of  the  deposits 
in  our  peat-beds  are  observable.  These  differences  are 
partly  of  color,  some  peats  being  gray,  others  red,  others 
again  black;  the  majority,  when  dry,  possess  a  dark 
brown-red  or  snuff  color.  They  also  vary  remarkably  in 
weight  and  consistency.  Some  are  compact,  destitute  of 
fibres  or  other  traces  of  the  vegetation  from  which  they 
have  been  derived,  and  on  drying,  shrink  greatly  and  yield 
tough  dense  masses  which  burn  readily,  and  make  an  ex 
cellent  fuel.  Others  again  are  light  and  porous,  and  re 
main  so  on  drying;  these  contain  intermixed  vegetable 
matter  that  is  but  little  advanced  in  the  peaty  decomposi 
tion.  Some  peats  are  almost  entirely  free  from  mineral 
matters,  and  on  burning,  leave  but  a  few  per  cent,  of  ash, 
others  contain  considerable  quantities  of  lime  or  iron,  in 
chemical  combination,  or  of  sand  and  clay  that  have  been 
washed  in  from  the  hills  adjoining  the  swamps.  As  has 
been  observed,  the  peat  of  some  swamps  is  mostly  derived 
from  mosses,  that  of  others  originates  largely  from  grasses; 
some  contain  much  decayed  wood  and  leaves,  others  again 
are  free  from  these. 

In  the  same  swamp  we  usually  observe  more  or  less  of 
all  these  differences.  We  find  the  surface  peat  is  light 
and  full  of  partly  decayed  vegetation,  while  below,  the 
deposits  are  more  compact.  We  commonly  can  trace  dis 
tinct  strata  or  layers  of  peat,  which  are  often  very  unlike 
each  other  in  appearance  and  quality,  and  in  some  cases 
the  light  and  compact  layers  alternate  so  that  the  former 
are  found  below  the  latter. 

The  light  and  porous  kinds  of  peat  appear  in  general 
to  be  formed  in  shallow  swamps  or  on  the  surface  of  bogs, 
where  there  is  considerable  access  of  air  to  the  decaying 
matters,  while  the  compacter,  older,  riper  peats  are  found 


ORIGIN   AND    VARIETIES.  15 

at  a  depth,  and  seem  to  have  been  formed  beneath  the  low 
water  mark,  in  more  complete  exclusion  of  the  atmos 
phere,  and  under  a  considerable  degree  of  pressure. 

The  nature  of  the  vegetation  that  flourishes  in  a  bog, 
has  much  effect  on  the  character  of  the  peat.  The  peats 
chiefly  derived  from  mosses  that  have  grown  in  the  full 
sunlight,  have  a  yellowish-red  color  in  their  upper  layers, 
which  usually  becomes  darker  as  we  go  down,  running 
through  all  shades  of  brown  until  at  a  considerable  deptli 
it  is  black.  Peats  produced  principally  from  grasses  are 
grayish  in  appearance  at  the  surface,  being  full  of  silvery 
fibres — the  skeletons  of  the  blades  of  grasses  and  sedges, 
while  below  they  are  commonly  black. 

Moss  peat  is  more  often  fibrous  in  structure,  and  when 
dried  forms  somewhat  elastic  masses.  Grass  peat,  when 
taken  a  little  below  the  surface,  is  commonly  destitute  of 
fibres ;  when  wet,  is  earthy  in  its  look,  and  dries  to  dense 
hard  lumps. 

Where  mosses  and  grasses  have  grown  together  simul 
taneously  in  the  same  swamp,  the  peat  is  modified  in  its 
characters  accordingly.  Where,  as  may  happen,  grass 
succeeds  moss,  or  moss  succeeds  grass,  the  different  layers 
reveal  their  origin  by  their  color  and  texture.  At  consid 
erable  depths,  however,  where  the  peat  is  very  old,  these 
differences  nearly  or  entirely  disappear. 

The  geological  character  of  a  country  is  not  without 
influence  on  the  kind  of  peat.  It  is  only  in  regions  where 
the  rocks  are  granitic  or  silicious,  where,  at  least,  the  sur 
face  waters  are  free  or  nearly  free  from  lime,  that  mosses 
make  the  bulk  of  the  peat. 

In  limestone  districts,  peat  is  chiefly  formed  from  grasses 
and  sedges. 

This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  mosses  (sphagnums)  need 
little  lirne  for  their  growth,  while  the  grasses  require  much ; 


16  PEAT   AND   ITS   USES. 

aquatic  grasses  cannot,  therefore,  thrive  in  pure  waters,  and 
in  waters  containing  the  requisite  proportion  of  lime, 
grasses  and  sedges  choke  out  the  moss. 

The  accidental  admixtures  of  soil  often  greatly  affect 
the  appearance  and  value  of  a  peat,  but  on  the  whole  it 
would  appear  that  its  quality  is  most  influenced  by  the  de 
gree  of  decomposition  it  has  been  subjected  to. 

In  meadows  and  marshes,  overflowed  by  the  ocean 
tides,  we  have  salt-peat,  formed  from  Sea- weeds  (Algce,} 
Salt-wort  (Salicornia,)  and  a  great  variety  of  marine  or 
strand-plants.  In  its  upper  portions,  salt-peat  is  coarsely 
fibrous  from  the  grass  roots,  and  dark-brown  in  color. 
At  sufficient  depth  it  is  black  and  destitute  of  fibres. 

The  fact  that  peat  is  fibrous  in  texture  shows  that  it  is 
of  comparatively  recent  formation,  or  that  the  decomposi 
tion  has  been  arrested  before  reaching  its  later  stages. 
Fibrous  peat  is  found  near  the  surface,  and  as  we  dig 
down  into  a  very  deep  bed  we  find  almost  invariably  that 
the  fibrous  structure  becomes  less  and  less  evident  until 
at  a  certain  depth  it  entirely  disappears. 

It  is  not  depth  simply,  but  age  or  advancement  in  de 
composition,  which  determines  these  differences  of  tex 
ture. 

The  "  ripest,"  most  perfectly  formed  peat,  that  in  which 
the  peaty  decomposition  has  reached  its  last  stage,  — 
which,  in  Germany,  is  termed  pitchy-peat  or  fat  peat, 
(Pechtorf,  Specktorf} — is  dark-brown  or  black  in  color, 
and  comparatively  heavy  and  dense.  When  moist,  it  is 
firm,  sticky  and  coherent  almost  like  clay,  may  be  cut  and 
moulded  to  any  shape.  Dried,  it  becomes  hard,  and  on  a 
cut  or  burnished  surface  takes  a  luster  like  wax  or  pitch. 

In  Holland,  West  Friesland,  Holstein,  Denmark  and 
Pomerania,  a  so-called  mud-peat  (Schlammtorf,  also  Bag- 
gertorf  and  Streichtorf,)  is  "fished  up"  from  the  bottoms 


ORIGIN    AND   VARIETIES.  17 

of  ponds,  as  a  black  mud  or  paste,  which,  on  drying,  be 
comes  hard  and  dense  like  the  pitchy-peat. 

The  two  varieties  of  peat  last  named  are  those  which 
are  most  prized  as  fuel  in  Europe. 

Vitriol  peat  is  peat  of  any  kind  impregnated  with  sul 
phate  of  iron  (copperas,}  and  sulphate  of  alumina,  (the 
astringent  ingredient  of  alum.) 

Swamp  Muck. — In  New  England,  the  vegetable  remains 
occurring  in  swamps,  etc.,  are  commonly  called  Muck. 
In  proper  English  usage,  muck  is  a  general  term  for  ma 
nure  of  any  sort,  and  has  no  special  application  to  the 
contents  of  bogs.  With  us,  however,  this  meaning  ap 
pears  to  be  quite  obsolete,  though  in  our  agricultural  lit 
erature — formerly,  more  than  now,  it  must  be  admitted, 
— the  word  as  applied  to  the  subject  of  our  treatise,  has 
been  qualified  as  /Swamp  Muck. 

In  Germany,  peat  of  whatever  character,  is  designated 
by  the  single  word  Torf  j  in  France  it  is  Tourbe,  and  of 
the  same  origin  is  the  word  Turf,  applied  to  it  in  Great 
Britain.  With  us  turf  appears  never  to  have  had  this 
signification. 

Peat,  no  doubt,  is  a  correct  name  for  the  substance 
which  results  from  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  mat 
ters  under  or  saturated  with  water,  whatever  its  appear 
ance  or  properties.  There  is,  however,  with  us,  an  incli 
nation  to  apply  this  word  particularly  to  those  purer  and 
more  compact  sorts  which  are  adapted  for  fuel,  while  to  the 
lighter,  less  decomposed  or  more  weathered  kinds,  and  to 
those  which  are  considerably  intermixed  with  soil  or  silt, 
the  term  muck  or  swamp  muck  is  given.  These  distinc 
tions  are  not,  indeed,  always  observed,  and,  in  fact,  so 
great  is  the  range  of  variation  in  the  quality  of  the  sub 
stance,  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  draw  a  line  where 
muck  leaves  off  and  peat  begins.  Notwithstanding,  a 


18  PEAT   AND   ITS   USES. 

rough  distinction  is  better  than  none,  and  we  shall  there 
fore  employ  the  two  terms  when  any  greater  clearness 
of  meaning  can  be  thereby  conveyed. 

It  happens,  that  in  New  England,  the  number  of  small 
shallow  swales,  that  contain  unripe  or  impure  peat,  is 
much  greater  than  that  of  large  and  deep  bogs.  Their 
contents  are  therefore  more  of  the  "  mucky  "  than  of  the 
"  peaty  "  order,  and  this  may  partly  account  for  New  Eng 
land  usage  in  regard  to  these  old  English  words. 

By  the  term  muck,  some  farmers  understand  leaf-mold 
(decayed  leaves),  especially  that  which  collects  in  low  and 
wet  places.  When  the  deposit  is  deep  and  saturated 
with  water,  it  may  have  all  the  essential  characters  of 
peat.  Ripe  peat,  from  such  a  source  is,  however,  so  far 
as  the  writer  is  informed,  unknown  to  any  extent  in  this 
country.  We  might  distinguish  as  leaf-muck  the  leaves 
which  have  decomposed  under  or  saturated  with  water, 
retaining  the  well  established  term  leaf-mold  to  designate 
the  dry  or  drier  covering  of  the  soil  in  a  dense  forest  of 
deciduous  trees. 

Salt-mud. — In  the  marshes,  bays,  and  estuaries  along 
the  sea-shore,  accumulate  large  quantities  of  fine  silt, 
brought  down  'by  rivers  or  deposited  from  the  sea-water, 
which  are  more  or  less  mixed  with  finely  divided  peat  or 
partly  decomposed  vegetable  matters,  derived  largely 
from  Sea-weed,  and  in  many  cases  also  with  animal  re 
mains  (mussels  and  other  shell-fish,  crabs,  and  myriads  of 
minute  organisms.)  This  black  mud  has  great  value  as  a 
fertilizer. 

4.   The  Chemical  Characters  and  Composition  of  Peat. 

The  process  of  burning,  demonstrates  that  peat  consists 
of  two  kinds  of  substance ;  one  of  which,  the  larger  por- 


CHEMICAL    CHARACTERS.  19 

tion,  is  combustible,  and  is  organic  or  vegetable  matter ; 
the  other,  smaller  portion,  remaining  indestructible  by 
fire  is  inorganic  matter  or  ash.  We  shall  consider  these 
separately. 

(a)  The  organic  or  combustible  part  of  peat  varies  con 
siderably  in  its  proximate  composition.  It  is  in  fact  an 
indefinite  mixture  of  several  or  perhaps  of  many  compound 
bodies,  whose  precise  nature  is  little  known.  These  bod 
ies  have  received  the  collective  names  Humus  and  G-eine. 
We  shall  employ  the  term  humus  to  designate  this  mix 
ture,  whether  occurring  in  peat,  swamp-muck,  salt-mud, 
in  composts,  or  in  the  arable  soil.  Its  chemical  charac 
ters  are  much  the  same,  whatever  its  appearance  or  mode 
of  occurrence ;  and  this  is  to  be  expected  since  it  is  always 
formed  from  the  same  materials  and  under  essentially 
similar  conditions. 

Resinous  and  Bituminous  matters. — If  dry  pulverized 
peat  be  agitated  and  warmed  for  a  short  time  with  alco 
hol,  there  is  usually  extracted  a  small  amount  of  resinous 
and  sometimes  of  bituminous  matters,  which  are  of  no 
account  in  the  agricultural  applications  of  peat,  but  have 
a  bearing  on  its  value  as  fuel. 

Ulmic  and  Sumic  acids.  —  On  boiling  what  remains 
from  the  treatment  with  alcohol,  with  a  weak  solution  of 
carbonate  of  soda  (sal-soda),  we  obtain  a  yellowish-brown 
or  black  liquid.  This  liquid  contains  certain  acid  ingre 
dients  of  the  peat  which  become  soluble  by  entering  into 
chemical  combination  with  soda. 

On  adding  to  the  solution  strong  vinegar,  or  any  other 
strong  acid,  there  separates  a  bulky  brown  or  black  sub 
stance,  which,  after  a  time,  subsides  to  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel  as  a  precipitate,  to  use  a  chemical  term,  leaving  the 
liquid  of  a  more  or  less  yellow  tinge.  This  deposit,  if 
obtained  from  light  brown  peat,  is  ulmic  acid  /  if  from 


20  PEAT    AXD    ITS    USES. 

black  peat,  it  is  humic  acid.  These  acids,  when  in  the 
precipitated  state,  are  insoluble  in  vinegar;  but  when 
this  is  washed  away,  they  are  considerably  soluble  in  water. 
They  are,  in  fact,  modified  by  the  action  of  the  soda,  so  as 
to  acquire  much  greater  solubility  in  water  than  they  oth 
erwise  possess.  On  drying  the  bulky  bodies  thus  obtained, 
brown  or  black  lustrous  masses  result,  which  have  much 
the  appearance  of  coal. 

Ulmin  and  Humin. — After  extracting  the  peat  with 
solution  of  carbonate  of  soda,  it  still  contains  ulmin  or 
humin.  These  bodies  cannot  be  obtained  in  the  pure 
state  from  peat,  since  they  are  mixed  with  more  or  less 
partially  decomposed  vegetable  matters  from  which  they 
cannot  be  separated  without  suffering  chemical  change. 
They  have  been  procured,  however,  by  the  action  of  mu 
riatic  acid  on  sugar.  They  are  indifferent  in  their  chemi 
cal  characters,  are  insoluble  in  water  and  in  solution  of 
carbonate  of  soda ;  but  upon  heating  with  solution  of 
hydrate  of  soda  they  give  dark-colored  liquids,  being  in 
fact  converted  by  this  treatment  into  ulmic  and  humic 
acids,  respectively,  with  which  they  are  identical  in  com 
position. 

The  terms  ulmic  and  humic  acids  do  not  refer  each  to  a 
single  compound,  but  rather  to  a  group  of  bodies  of  close 
ly  similar  appearance  and  properties,  which,  however,  do 
differ  slightly  in  their  characteristics,  and  differ  also  in 
composition  by  containing  more  or  less  of  oxygen  and 
hydrogen  in  equal  equivalents. 

After  complete  extraction  with  hydrate  of  soda,  there 
remains  more  or  less  undecomposed  vegetable  matter,  to 
gether  with  sand  and  soil,  were  these  contained  in  the  peat. 

Crenic  and  apocrenic  acids. — From  the  usually  yellow 
ish  liquid  out  of  which  the  ulmic  and  humic  acids  have 
been  separated,  may  further  be  procured  by  appropriate 


CHEMICAL    CHARACTERS.  H 

chemical  means,  not  needful  to  be  detailed  here,  two 
other  bodies  which  bear  the  names  respectively  of  Crenic 
Acid  and  Apocrenic  Acid.  These  acids  were  discovered 
by  Berzelius,  the  great  Swedish  chemist,  in  the  water 
and  sediment  of  the  Porla  spring,  in  Sweden. 

By  the  action  upon  peat  of  carbonate  of  ammonia, 
which  is  generated  to  some  extent  in  the  decay  of  vegeta 
ble  matters  and  is  also  absorbed  from  the  air,  ulmic  and 
humic  acids  are  made  soluble,  and  combine  with  the  am 
monia  as  well  as  with  lime,  oxide  of  iron,  etc.  In  some 
cases  the  ulmates  and  humates  thus  produced  may  be  ex 
tracted  from  the  peat  by  water,  and  consequently  occur 
dissolved  in  the  water  of  the  swamp  from  which  the  peat 
is  taken,  giving  it  a  yellow  or  brown  color. 

inmates  and  Humates. — Of  considerable  interest  to  us 
here,  are  the  properties  of  the  compounds  of  these  acids, 
that  may  be  formed  in  peat  when  it  is  used  as  an  ingre 
dient  of  composts.  The  ulmates  and  humates  of  the  al 
kalies,  viz. :  potash,  soda,  and  ammonia,  dissolve  readily 
in  water.  They  are  formed  when  the  alkalies  or  their 
carbonates  act  on  ulmin  and  humin,  or  upon  ulmates  or 
humates  of  lime,  iron,  etc.  Their  dilute  solutions  are  yel 
low,  or  brown. 

The  ulmates  and  humates  of  lime,  magnesia,  oxide  of 
iron,  oxide  of  manganese  and  alumina,  are  insoluble,  or 
nearly  so  in  water. 

In  ordinary  soils,  the  earths  and  oxides  just  named,  pre 
dominate  over  the  alkalies,  and  although  they  may  contain 
considerable  ulmic  and  humic  acids,  water  is  able  to  ex 
tract  but  very  minute  quantities  of  the  latter,  on  account 
of  the  insolubility  of  the  compounds  they  have  formed. 

On  the  other  hand,  peat,  highly  manured  garden  soil,  leaf- 
mold,  rotted  manure  and  composts,  yield  yellow  or  brown 
extracts  with  water,  from  the  fact  that  alkalies  are  here 
present  to  form  soluble  compounds. 


22  PEAT   AND   ITS    USES. 

An  important  fact  established  by  Mulder  is,  that  when 
solutions  of  alkali-carbonates  are  put  in  contact  with  the 
insoluble  ulmates  and  humates,  the  latter  are  decompos 
ed  ;  soluble  alkali-ulmates  and  humates  being  formed,  and 
in  these,  a  portion  of  the  otherwise  insoluble  ulmates  and 
humates  dissolve,  so  that  thus,  in  a  compost,  lime,  magne 
sia,  oxide  of  iron,  and  even  alumina  may  exist  in  soluble 
combinations,  by  the  agency  of  these  acids. 

Crenates  and  Apocrenates. — The  ulmic  and  humic  acids 
when  separated  from  their  compounds,  are  nearly  insolu 
ble,  and,  so  far  as  we  know,  comparatively  inert  bodies ; 
by  further  change,  (uniting  with  oxygen)  they  pass  into 
or  yield  the  crenic  and  apocrenic  acids  which,  according  to 
Mulder,  have  an  acid  taste,  being  freely  soluble  in  water, 
and  in  all  respects,  decided  acids.  The  compounds  of 
both  these  acids  with  the  alkalies  are  soluble.  The  cre- 
nates  of  lime,  magnesia,  and  protoxide  of  iron  are  soluble, 
crenates  of  peroxide  of  iron  and  of  oxide  of  manganese 
are  but  very  slightly  soluble  ;  crenate  of  alumina  is  inso 
luble.  The  apocrenates  of  iron  and  manganese  are  slight 
ly  soluble ;  those  of  lime,  magnesia,  and  alumina  are  in 
soluble.  All  the  insoluble  crenates  and  apocrenates,  are 
soluble  in  solutions  of  the  corresponding  salts  of  the  al 
kalies. 

Application  of  these  facts  will  be  given  in  subsequent 
paragraphs.  It  may  be  here  remarked,  that  the  crenate 
of  protoxide  of  iron  is  not  unfrequently  formed  in  con 
siderable  quantity  in  peat-bogs,  and  dissolving  in  the  wa 
ter  of  springs  gives  them  a  chalybeate  character. 
Copious  springs  of  this  kind  occur  at  the  edge  of  a  peat- 
bed  at  Woodstock,  Conn.,  which  are  in  no  small  repute 
for  their  medicinal  qualities,  having  a  tonic  effect  from  the 
iron  they  contain.  Such  waters,  on  exposure  to  the  air, 
shortly  absorb  oxygen,  and  the  substance  is  thereby  con- 


CHEMICAL    CHARACTERS.  23 

verted  into  crenate  and  afterwards  into  apocrenate  of  perox 
ide  of  iron,  which,  being  but  slightly  soluble,  or  insoluble, 
separates  as  a  yellow  or  brown  ochreous  deposit  along  the 
course  of  the  water.  By  further  exposure  to  air  the 
organic  acid  is  oxidized  to  carbonic  acid,  and  hydrated 
oxide  of  iron  remains.  Bog-iron  ore  appears  often  to  have 
originated  in  this  way. 

G-ein  and  Geic  acid. — Mulder  formerly  believed  an 
other  substance  to  exist  in  peat  which  he  called  G-ein,  and 
from  this  by  the  action  of  alkalies  he  supposed  geic  acid 
to  be  formed.  In  his  later  writings,  however,  he  expresses 
doubt  as  to  the  existence  of  such  a  substance,  and  we  may 
omit  further  notice  of  it,  especially  since,  if  it  really  do 
occur,  its  properties  are  not  distinct  from  those  of  humic 
acid. 

We  should  not  neglect  to  remark,  however,  that  the 
word  gein  has  been  employed  by  some  writers  in  the  sense 
in  which  we  use  humus,  viz.  :  to  denote  the  brown  or 
black  products  of  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matters. 

It  is  scarcely  to  be  doubted  that  other  organic  com 
pounds  exist  in  peat.  As  yet,  however,  we  have  no 
knowledge  of  any  other  ingredients,  while  it  appears  cer 
tain  that  those  we  have  described  are  its  chief  constitu 
ents,  and  give  it  its  peculiar  properties.  With  regard  to 
them  it  must  nevertheless  be  admitted,  that  our  chemical 
knowledge  is  not  entirely  satisfactory,  and  new  investiga 
tions  are  urgently  demanded  to  supply  the  deficiencies  of 
the  researches  so  ably  made  by  Mulder,  more  than  twenty 
years  ago. 

Elementary  Composition  of  Peat. 

After  this  brief  notice  of  those  organic  compounds  that 
have  been  recognized  in  or  produced  from  peat,  we  may 
give  attention  to  the  elementary  composition  of  peat  itself. 


24 


PEAT   AND   ITS   USES. 


Like  that  of  the  vegetation  from  which  it  originates, 
the  organic  part  of  peat  consists  of  Carbon,  Hydrogen, 
Oxygen  and  Nitrogen.  In  the  subjoined  table  are  given 
the  proportions  of  these  elements  as  found  in  the  combus 
tible  part  of  sphagnum,  of  several  kinds  of  wood,  and  in 
that  of  a  number  of  peats  in  various  stages  of  ripeness. 
They  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  content  of  carbon. 


Analyst. 

Car 
bon. 

Hydro 
gen. 

Oxy 
gen. 

Nitro 
gen. 

1—  Sphagnum,    ] 

Webskv 

49.S8 

6.54 

4  '.42 

1.16 

l=KSrW?>°d'  Undecomposed. 

Chevandier 

49.9D 
50.30 

6.10 
6.30 

43.10 
42.40 

0.90 
1.00 

4-0  ak         "       J 

ii 

50.<iO 

6.00 

42.10 

1.30 

5—  Peat,  porous,  light-brown,  sphagnous 

Websky 

50.8<> 

5.80 

42.57 

0.77 

6—    "      porous,  red-brown. 

Jacckel 

53.51 

5.90 

40.59 

7—    "      heavy,  brown. 

** 

:>!|.l:? 

5.32 

3825 

8—    "      dark  red-brown,  well  decomposed 
9—    "      black,  very  dense  and  hard. 
10—    "     black,  heavy,   ?  best  quality  for 
11—    "      brown,  heavy,  J           fuel. 

Websky 

59.47 
59.7  ) 
59.71 
02.54 

6.52 

5.70 
5.27 
6.81 

31.51 
33.04 
32.07 
29.24 

2.51 
1.56 
2.59 
1.41 

From  this  table  it  is  seen  that  sphagnum,  and  the  wood 
of  our  forest  trees  are  very  similar  in  composition,  though 
not  identical.  Further,  it  is  seen  from  analyses  1  and  5, 
that  in  the  first  stages  of  the  conversion  of  sphagnum  into 
peat — which  are  marked  by  a  change  of  color,  but  in 
which  the  form  of  the  sphagnum  is  to  a  considerable  ex 
tent  preserved — but  little  alteration  occurs  in  ultimate 
composition;  about  one  per  cent,  of  carbon  being  gained, 
and  one  of  hydrogen  lost.  We  notice  in  running  down 
the  columns  that  as  the  peat  becomes  heavier  and  darker 
in  color,  it  also  becomes  richer  in  carbon  and  poorer  in 
oxygen.  Hydrogen  varies  but  slightly. 

As  a  general  statement  we  may  say  that  the  ripest  and 
heaviest  peat  contains  10  or  12  per  cent,  more  carbon  and 
10  or  12  per  cent,  less  oxygen  than  the  vegetable  matter 
from  which  it  is  produced ;  while  between  the  unaltered 
^vegetation  and  the  last  stage  of  humification,  the  peat 
runs  through  an  indefinite  number  of  intermediate  stages. 


CHEMICAL    CHARACTERS.  25 

Nitrogen  is  variable,  but,  in  general,  the  older  peats 
contain  the  most.  To  this  topic  we  shall  shortly  recur, 
and  now  pass  on  to  notice — 

The  ultimate  composition  of  the  compounds  of  which 
peat  consists. 

Below  are  tabulated  analyses  of  the  organic  acids  of 
peat : — 

Carbon.      Hydrogen.       Oxygen. 

TJlmfc  acid,  artificial  from  sugar 67.10 4.20 28.70 

Humic  acid,  from  Frisian  peat 61 .10 4.30 34.60 

Crenic  acid - 56.47 2.74 40.78 

Apocrenic  aciil 45.70  4.80 49.50 

It  is  seen  that  the  amount  of  carbon  diminishes  from 
ulmic  acid  to  apocrenic,  that  of  oxygen  increases  in  the 
same  direction  and  to  the  same  extent,  viz. :  about  21  per 
cent.,  while  the  hydrogen  remains  nearly  the  same  in  all. 

(b)  The  mineral  part  of  peat ,  which  remains  as  ashes 
when  the  organic  matters  are  burned  away,  is  variable  in 
quantity  and  composition.  Usually  a  portion  of  sand  or 
soil  is  found  in  it,  and  this  not  unfrequently  constitutes  its 
larger  portion.  Some  peats  leave  on  burning  much  car 
bonate  of  lime;  others  chiefly  sulphate  of  lime;  the  ash 
of  others  again  is  mostly  oxyd  of  iron ;  silicic,  and  phos 
phoric  acids,  magnesia,  potash,  soda,  alumina  and  chlorine, 
also  occur  in  small  quantities  in  the  ash  of  all  peats. 

With  one  exception  (alumina)  all  these  bodies  are  im 
portant  ingredients  of  agricultural  plants. 

In  some  rare  instances,  peats  are  found,  which  are  so 
impregnated  with  soluble  sulphates  of  iron  and  alumina, 
as  to  yield  these  salts  to  water  in  large  quantity ;  and 
sulphate  of  iron  (green  vitriol,)  has  actually  been  manu 
factured  from  such  peats,  which  in  consequence  have  been 
characterized  as  vitriol  peats. 
2 


26  PEAT   AND   ITS    USES. 

Those  bases  (lime,  oxide  of  iron,  etc.,)  which  are  found 
as  carbonates  or  simple  oxides  in  the  ashes,  exist  in  the 
peat  itself  in  combination  with  the  humic  and  other  or 
ganic  acids.  When  these  compounds  are  destroyed  by 
burning,  the  bases  remain  united  to  carbonic  acid. 

5. —  Chemical  Changes  that  occur  in  the  formation  of 
Peat.  When  a  plant  perishes,  its  conversion  into  humus 
usually  begins  at  once.  When  exposed  to  the  atmosphere, 
the  oxygen  of  the  air  attacks  it,  uniting  with  its  carbon 
producing  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  with  its  hydrogen  gen 
erating  water.  This  action  goes  on,  though  slowly,  even 
at  some  depth  under  water,  because  the  latter  dissolves 
oxygen  from  the  air  in  small  quantity,*  and  constantly 
resupplies  itself  as  rapidly  as  the  gas  is  consumed. 

Whether  exposed  to  the  air  or  not,  the  organic  matter 
suffers  internal  decomposition,  and  portions  of  its  elements 
assume  the  gaseous  or  liquid  form.  We  have  seen  that 
ripe  peat  is  10  to  12 per  cent,  richer  in  carbon  and  equally 
poorer  in  oxygen,  than  the  vegetable  matters  from  which 
it  originates.  Organic  matters,  in  passing  into  peat,  lose 
carbon  and  nitrogen ;  but  they  lose  oxygen  more  rapidly 
than  the  other  two  elements,  and  hence  the  latter  become 
relatively  more  abundant.  The  loss  of  hydrogen  is  such 
that  its  proportion  to  the  other  elements  is  but  little 
altered. 

The  bodies  that  separate  from  the  decomposing  vege 
table  matter  are  carbonic  acid  gas,  carburetted  hydro 
gen  (marsh  gas),  nitrogen  gas,  and  water. 

Carbonic  acid  is  the  most  abundant  gaseous  product  of 
the  peaty  decomposition.  Since  it  contains  nearly  73  .per 
cent,  of  oxygen  and  but  27  per  cent,  of  carbon,  it  is  ob- 


*  The  oxygen  thus  absorbed  by  water,  serves  for  the  respiration  of  fish  and 
aquatic  animals. 


CHEMICAL    CHARACTERS.  27 

vious  that  by  its  escape  the  proportion  of  carbon  in  the 
residual  mass  is  increased.  In  the  formation  of  water 
from  the  decaying  matters,  1  part  of  hydrogen  carries  oif 
8  parts  of  oxygen,  and  this  change  increases  the  propor 
tion  of  carbon  and  of  hydrogen.  Marsh  gas  consists  of 
one  part  of  hydrogen  to  three  of  carbon,  but  it  is  evolved 
in  comparatively  small  quantity,  and  hence  has  no  effect 
in  diminishing  the  per  cent,  of  carbon. 

The  gas  that  bubbles  up  through  the  water  of  a  peat-bog, 
especially  if  the  decomposing  matters  at  the  bottom  be 
stirred,  consists  largely  of  marsh  gas  and  nitrogen,  often 
with  but  a  small  proportion  of  carbonic  acid.  Thus 
Websky  found  in  gas  from  a  peat-bed 

Carbonic  acid  2.97 

Marsh  gas 43.36 

Nitrogen 53.67 

100.00 

Carbonic  acid,  however,  dissolves  to  a  considerable  ex 
tent  in  water,  and  is  furthermore  absorbed  by  the  living 
vegetation,  which  is  not  true  of  marsh  gas  and  nitrogen ; 
hence  the  latter  escape  while  the  former  does  not.  Nitro 
gen  escapes  in  the  uncombined  state,  as  it  always  (or  usu 
ally)  does  in  the  decay  of  vegetable  and  animal  matters 
that  contain  it.  Its  loss  is,  in  general,  slower  than  that  of 
the  other  elements,  and  it  sometimes  accumulates  in  the 
peat  in  considerable  quantity.  A  small  portion  of  nitro 
gen  unites  with  hydrogen,  forming  ammonia,  which  re 
mains  combined  with  the  humic  and  other  acids. 


PART   II. 

ON  THE  AGRICULTURAL  USES  OF  PEAT  AND 
SWAMP  MUCK. 


After  the  foregoing  account  of  the  composition  of  peat, 
we  may  proceed  to  notice : 

1. —  The  characters  that  adapt  it  for  agricultural  uses. 

These  characters  are  conveniently  discussed  under  two 
heads,  viz. : 

Those  which  render  it  useful  in  improving  the  texture 
and  physical  characters  of  the  soil,  and  indirectly  con 
tribute  to  the  nourishment  of  crops,  —  characters  which 
constitute  it  an  amendment  to  the  soil  (A);  and 

Those  which  make  it  a  direct  fertilizer  (7?). 

A. — Considered  as  an  amendment,  the  value  of  peat  de 
pends  upon 

Its  remarkable  power  of  absorbing  and  retaining 
water,  both  as  a  liquid  and  as  a  vapor  (I) :  ^ 

Its  power  of  absorbing  ammonia  (II) : 


EMPLOYMENT   IN   AGEICULTURE.  29 

Its  effect  in  promoting  the  disintegration  and  solu 
tion  of  mineral  ingredients -,  that  is  the  stony  matters  of 
the  soil  (III) :  and 

Its  influence  on  the  temperature  of  the  soil  (IV). 

The  agricultural  importance  of  these  properties  of  peat 
is  best  illustrated  by  considering  the  faults  of  a  certain 
class  of  soils. 

Throughout  the  State  of  Connecticut,  for  instance*  are 
found  abundant  examples  of  light,  leachy,  hungry  soils, 
which  consist  of  coarse  sand  or  fine  gravel ;  are  surface- 
dry  in  a  few  hours  after  the  heaviest  rains,  and  in  the  sum 
mer  drouths,  are  as  dry  as  an  ash-heap  to  a  depth  of  sev 
eral  or  many  feet. 

These  soils  are  easy  to  work,  are  ready  for  the  plow 
early  in  the  spring,  and  if  well  manured  give  fair  crops  in 
wet  seasons.  In  a  dry  summer,  however,  they  yield  poor 
ly,  or  fail  of  crops  entirely ;  and,  at  the  best,  they  require 
constant  and  very  heavy  manuring  to  keep  them  in  heart. 

Crops  fail  on  these  soils  from  two  causes,  viz.  ;  want  of 
moisture  and  want  of  food.  Cultivated  plants  demand  as 
an  indispensable  condition  of  their  growth  and  perfection, 
to  be  supplied  with  water  in  certain  quantities,  which  dif 
fer  with  different  crops.  Buckwheat  will  flourish  best  on 
dry  soils,  while  cranberries  and  rice  grow  in  swamps. 

Our  ordinary  cereal,  root,  forage  and  garden  crops  re 
quire  a  medium  degree  of  moisture,  and  with  us  it  is  in 
all  cases  desirable  that  the  soil  be  equally  protected  from  ex 
cess  of  water  and  from  drouth.  Soils  must  be  thus  situated 
either  naturally,  or  as  the  result  of  improvement,  before 
any  steadily  good  results  can  be  obtained  in  their  cultiva 
tion.  The  remedy  for  excess  of  water  in  too  heavy  soils, 
is  thorough  Drainage.  It  is  expensive,  but  effectual.  It 
makes  the  earth  more  porous,  opens  and  maintains  chan- 


30  PEAT   AND   ITS    USES. 

nels,  through  which  the  surplus  water  speedily  runs  off, 
and  permits  the  roots  of  crops  to  go  down  to  a  consider 
able  depth. 

What,  let  us  consider,  is  the  means  of  obviating  the 
defects  of  soils  that  are  naturally  too  porous,  from  which 
the  water  runs  off  too  readily,  and  whose  crops  "  burn 
up  "  in  dry  seasons  ? 

In  wet  summers,  these  light  soils,  as  we  have  remarked, 
are  quite  productive  if  well  manured.  It  is  then  plain 
that  if  we  could  add  anything  to  them  which  would  re 
tain  the  moisture  of  dews  and  rains  in  spite  of  the  sum 
mer-heats,  our  crops  would  be  uniformly  fair,  provided 
the  supply  of  manure  were  kept  up. 

But  why  is  it  that  light  soils,  need  more  manure  than 
loamy  or  heavy  lands?  We  answer— because,  in  the  first 
place,  the  rains  which  quickly  descend  through  the  open 
soil,  wash  down  out  of  the  reach  of  vegetation  the  solu 
ble  fertilizing  matters,  especially  the  nitrates,  for  which 
the  soil  has  no  retentive  power;  and  in  the  second  place, 
from  the  porosity  of  the  soil,  the  air  has  too  great  access, 
so  that  the  vegetable  and  animal  matters  of  manures  de 
cay  too  rapidly,  their  volatile  portions,  ammonia  and  car 
bonic  acid,  escape  into  the  atmosphere,  and  are  in  measure 
lost  to  the  crops.  From  these  combined  causes  we  find 
that  a  heavy  dressing  of  well-rotted  stable  manure,  almost 
if  not  entirely,  disappears  from  such  soils  in  one  season, 
so  that  another  year  the  field  requires  a  renewed  applica 
tion  ;  while  on  loamy  soils  the  same  amount  of  manure 
would  have  lasted  several  years,  and  produced  each  year 
a  better  effect. 

We  want  then  to  amend  light  soils  by  incorporating 
with  them  something  that  prevents  the  rains  from  leach 
ing  through  them  too  rapidly,  and  also  that  renders  them 
less  open  to  the  air,  or  absorbs  and  retains  for  the  use  of 
crops  the  volatile  products  of  the  decay  oi"  manures. 


EMPLOYMENT   IN    AGRICULTURE.  31 

For  these  purposes,  vegetable  matter  of  some  sort  is 
the  best  and  almost  the  only  amendment  that  can  be 
economically  employed.  In  many  cases  a  good  peat  or 
muck  is  the  best  form  of  this  material,  that  lies  at  the 
farmer's  command. 

I. — Its  absorbent  power  for  liquid  water  is  well  known 
to  every  farmer  who  has  thrown  it  up  in  a  pile  to  season 
for  use.  It  holds  the  water  like  a  sponge,  and,  according 
to  its  greater  or  less  porosity,  will  retain  from  50  to  100 
or  more  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  liquid,  without  drip 
ping.  Nor  can  this  water  escape  from  it  rapidly.  It  dries 
almost  as  slowly  as  clay,  and  a  heap  of  it  that  has  been 
exposed  to  sun  and  wind  for  a  whole  summer,  though 
it  has  of  course  lost  much  water,  is  still  distinctly  wet  to 
the  eye  and  the  feel  a  little  below  the  surface. 
.  Its  absorbent  power  for  vapor  of  water  is  so  great  that 
more  than  once  it  has  happened  in  Germany,  that  barns 
or  close  sheds  filled  with  partially  dried  peat,  such  as  is 
used  for  fuel,  have  been  burst  by  the  swelling  of  the  peat 
in  damp  weather,  occasioned  by  the  absorption  of  mois 
ture  from  the  air.  This  power  is  further  shown  by  the 
fact  that  when  peat  has  been  kept  all  summer  long  in  a 
\varm  room,  thinly  spread  out  to  the  air,  and  has  become 
like  dry  snuff  to  the  feel,  it  still  contains  from  8  to  30 per 
cent,  (average  15  per  cent.)  of  water.  To  dry  a  peat 
thoroughly,  it  requires  to  be  exposed  for  some  time  to  the 
temperature  of  boiling  water.  It  is  thus  plain,  as  experi 
ence  has  repeatedly  demonstrated,  that  no  ordinary  sum 
mer  heats  can  dry  up  a  soil  which  has  had  a  good  dress 
ing  of  this  material,  for  on  the  one  hand,  it  soaks  up  and 
holds  the  rains  that  fall  upon  it,  and  on  the  other,  it  ab 
sorbs  the  vapor  of  water  out  of  the  atmosphere  whenever 
it  is  moist,  as  at  night  and  in  cloudy  weather. 

"When  peat  has  once  become  air-dry,  it  no  longer  man 
ifests  this  avidity  for  water.     In  drying  it  shrinks,  loses 


32  PEAT    AXD    ITS    USES. 

its  porosity  and  requires  long  soaking  to  saturate  it  again. 
In  the  soil,  however,  it  rarely  becomes  air-dry,  unless  in 
deed,  this  may  happen  during  long  drouth  with  a  peaty 
soil,  such  as  results  from  the  draining  of  a  bog. 

II. — Absorbent  power  for  ammonia. 

All  soils  that  deserve  to  be  called  fertile,  have  the  prop 
erty  of  absorbing  and  retaining  ammonia  and  the  volatile 
matters  which  escape  from  fermenting  manures,  but  light 
and  coarse  soils  may  be  deficient  in  this  power.  Here 
again  in  respect  to  its  absorptive  power  for  ammonia,  peat 
comes  to  our  aid. 

It  is  easy  to  show  by  direct  experiment  that  peat  ab 
sorbs  and  combines  with  ammonia. 

In  1858  I  took  a  weighed  quantity  of  air-dry  peat  from 
the  New  Haven  Beaver  Pond,  (a  specimen  furnished  me 
by  Chauncey  Goodyear,  Esq.,)  and  poured  upon  it  a 
known  quantity  of  dilute  solution  of  ammonia,  and  agi 
tated  the  two  together  occasionally  during  48  hours.  I 
then  distilled  off  at  a  boiling  heat  the  unabsorbed  ammo 
nia  and  determined  its  quantity.  This  amount  subtract 
ed  from  that  of  the  ammonia  originally  employed,  gave 
the  quantity  of  ammonia  absorbed  and  retained  by  the 
peat  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water. 

The  peat  retained  ammonia  to  the  amount  of  0.95  of 
one  per  cent. 

I  made  another  trial  at  the  same  time  with  carbonate 
of  ammonia,  adding  excess  of  solution  of  this  salt  to  a 
quantity  of  peat,  and  exposing  it  to  the  heat  of  boiling 
water,  until  no  smell  of  ammonia  was  perceptible.  The 
entire  nitrogen  in  the  peat  was  then  determined,  and  it 
was  found  that  the  dry  peat  which  originally  contained 
nitrogen  equivalent  to  2.4  per  cent,  of  ammonia,  now 
yielded  an  amount  corresponding  to  3.7  per  cent.  The 


EMPLOYMENT   IX    AGRICULTURE.  33 

quantity  of  ammonia  absorbed  and  retained  at  a  tempera 
ture  of  212°,  was  thus  1. 3 per  cent. 

This  last  experiment  most  nearly  represents  the  true 
power  of  absorption ;  because,  in  fermenting  manures, 
ammonia  mostly  occurs  in  the  form  of  carbonate,  and  this 
is  more  Largely  retained  than  free  ammonia,  on  account  of 
its  power  of  decomposing  the  humate  of  lime,  forming 
with  it  carbonate  of  lime  and  humate  of  ammonia. 

The  absorbent  power  of  peat  is  well  shown  by  the  ana 
lyses  of  three  specimens,  sent  me  in  1858,  by  Edwin 
Hoyt,  Esq.,  of  New  Canaan,  Conn.  The  first  of  these 
was  the  swamp  muck  he  employed.  It  contained  in  the 
air-dry  state  nitrogen  equivalent  to  0.58  per  cent,  of  am 
monia.  The  second  sample  was  the  same  muck  that  had 
lain  under  the  flooring  of  the  horse  stables,  and  had  been, 
in  this  way,  partially  saturated  with  urine.  It  contained 
nitrogen  equivalent  to  1.15  per  cent,  of  ammonia.  The 
third  sample  was,  finally,  the  same  muck  composted  with 
white-fish.  It  contained  nitrogen  corresponding  to  1.31 
per  cent,  of  ammonia.* 

The  quantities  of  ammonia  thus  absorbed,  both  in  the 
laboratory  and  field  experiments  are  small  —  from  0.7  to 
1.3  per  cent.  The  absorption  is  without  doubt  chiefly 
due  to  the  organic  matter  of  the  peats,  and  in  all  the  spec 
imens  on  which  these  trials  were  made,  the  proportion  of 
inorganic  matter  is  large.  The  results  therefore  become 
a  better  expression  of  the  power  of  peat,  in  general,  to 
absorb  ammonia,  if  we  reckon  them  on  the  organic  mat 
ter  alone.  Calculated  in  this  way,  the  organic  matter  of 
the  Beaver  Pond  peat  (which  constitutes  but  68  per  cent. 
of  the  dry  peat)  absorbs  1.4  per  cent,  of  free  ammonia, 
and  1.9  per  cent,  of  ammonia  out  of  the  carbonate  of  am 
monia. 

*  This  sample  contained  also  fish-bones,  hence  the  larger  content  of  nitrogen 
was  not  entirely  due  to  absorbed  ammonia. 
o* 


34  PEAT    AND    ITS    USES. 

Similar  experiments,  by  Anderson,  on  a  Scotch  peat, 
showed  it  to  possess,  when  wet,  an  absorptive  power  of 
2  per  cent.,  and,  after  drying  in  the  air,  it  still  retained 
1.5  per  cent. — [Trans.  Highland  and  Ag'l  Soc'y.] 

When  we  consider  how  small  an  ingredient  of  most 
manures  nitrogen  is,  viz. :  from  one-half  to  three-quarters 
of  one  per  cent,  in  case  of  stable  manure,  and  how  little 
of  it,  in  the  shape  of  guano  for  instance,  is  usually  applied 
to  crops — not  more  than  40  to  60  Ibs.  to  the  acre,  (the 
usual  dressings  with  guano  are  from  250  to  400  Ibs.  per 
acre,  and  nitrogen  averages  but  15  per  cent,  of  the  guano), 
we  at  once  perceive  that  an  absorptive  power  of  one  or 
even  one-half  per  cent,  is  greatly  more  than  adequate  for 
every  agricultural  purpose. 


III. — Peat  promotes  the  disintegration  of  the 

The  soil  is  a  storehouse  of  food  for  crops ;  the  stores  it 
contains  are,  however,  only  partly  available  for  immediate 
use.  In  fact,  by  far  the  larger  share  is  locked  up,  as  it  were, 
in  insoluble  combinations,  and  only  by  a  slow  and  gradual 
change  can  it  become  accessible  to  the  plant.  This  change 
is  largely  brought  about  by  the  united  action  of  water 
and  carbonic  acid  gas.  Nearly  all  the  rocks  and  minerals 
out  of  which  fertile  soils  are  formed, — which  therefore 
contain  those  inorganic  matters  that  are  essential  to  vege 
table  growth, — though  very  slowly  acted  on  by  pure  wa 
ter,  are  decomposed  and  dissolved  to  a  much  greater  ex 
tent  by  water,  charged  with  carbonic  acid  gas. 

It  is  by  these  solvents  that  the  formation  of  soil  from 
broken  rocks  is  to  a  great  extent  due.  Clay  is  invariably 
a  result  of  their  direct  action  upon  rocks.  The  efficiency 
of  the  soil  depends  greatly  upon  their  chemical  in 
fluence. 


EMPLOYMENT   IN   AGRICULTURE.  35 

The  only  abundant  source  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  soil, 
is  decaying  vegetable  matter. 

Hungry,  leachy  soils,  from  their  deficiency  of  vegetable 
matter  and  of  moisture,  do  not  adequately  yield  their  own 
native  resources  to  the  support  of  crops,  because  the  con 
ditions  for  converting  their  fixed  into  floating  capital  are 
wanting.  Such  soils  dressed  with  peat  or  green  manur 
ed,  at  once  acquire  the  power  of  retaining  water,  and 
keep  that  water  ever  charged  with  carbonic  acid :  thus  not 
only  the  extraneous  manures  which  the  farmer  applies  are 
fully  economized ;  but  the  soil  becomes  more  productive 
from  its  own  stores  of  fertility  which  now  begin  to  be  un 
locked  and  available. 

Dr.  Peters,  of  Saxony,  has  made  some  instructive  ex 
periments  that  are  here  in  point.  He  filled  several  large 
glass  jars,  (2|  feet  high  and  5^  inches  wide)  with  a  rather 
poor  loamy  sand,  containing  considerable  humus,  and 
planted  in  each  one,  June  14,  1857,  an  equal  number  of 
seeds  of  oats  and  peas.  Jar  No.  2  had  daily  passed  into 
it  through  a  tube,  adapted  to  the  bottom,  about  31  pints 
of  common  air.  No.  3  received  daily  the  same  bulk  of  a 
mixture  of  air  and  carbonic  acid  gas,  of  which  the  latter 
amounted  to  one-fourth.  No.  1  remained  without  any 
treatment  of  this  kind,  i.  e. :  in  just  the  condition  of  the 
soil  in  an  open  field,  having  no  air  in  its  pores,  save  that 
penetrating  it  from  the  atmosphere.  On  October  3,  the 
plants  were  removed  from  the  soil,  and  after  drying  at 
the  boiling  point  of  water,  were  weighed.  The  crops 
from  the  pots  into  which  air  and  carbonic  acid  were  daily 
forced,  were  about  twice  as  heavy  as  No.  1,  which  re 
mained  in  the  ordinary  condition. 

Examination  of  the  soil  further  demonstrated,  that  in 
the  last  two  soils,  a  considerably  greater  quantity  of  min 
eral  and  organic  matters  had  become  soluble  in  water, 


PEAT    AND    ITS    USES. 


than  in  the  soil  that  was  not  artificially  aerated.  The  ac 
tual  results  are  given  in  the  table  below  in  grammes,  and 
refer  to  6000  grammes  of  soil  in  each  case :  — 

ACTION   OF   CARBONIC   ACID   ON   THE   SOIL. 


Substances  soluble  in  water,  etc. 

No.  1, 
Without 
Artificial 
Supply  of 
Air. 

No.  2, 
Common 

Air 
Added. 

No.  3. 

Air  and  '. 
Carbonic 
acid  added 

Mineral  matters   

3  71 

Potash.        .                        .... 

0  07 

Soda 

Organic  matters   

2  "6 

4  32 

9  4Q 

Weight  of  Crops  

5.69 

10.49 

12.35 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  air  alone  exercised 
nearly  as  much  solvent  effect  as  the  mixture  of  air  with 
one-fourth  its  weight  of  carbonic  acid;  this  is  doubtless,  in 
part  due  to  the  fact  that  the  air,  upon  entering  the  soil 
rich  in  humus,  caused  the  abundant  formation  of  carbonic 
acid,  as  will  be  presently  shown  must  have  been  the  case. 
It  is,  however,  probable  that  organic  acids  (crenic  and 
apocrenic,)  and  nitric  acid  were  also  produced  (by  oxida 
tion,)  and  shared  with  carbonic  the  work  of  solution. 

It  is.  almost  certain,  that  the  acids  of  peat  exert  a  pow 
erful  decomposing,  and  ultimately  solvent  effect  on  the 
minerals  of  the  soil ;  but  on  this  point  we  have  no  precise 
information,  and  must  therefore  be  content  merely  to  pre 
sent  the  probability.  This  is  sustained  by  the  fact  that 
the  crenic,  apocrenic  and  humic  acids,  though  often  partly 
uncombined,  are  never  wholly  so,  but  usually  occur  united 
in  part  to  various  bases,  viz. :  lime,  magnesin,  ammonia, 
potash,  alumina  and  oxide  of  iron. 

The  crenic  and  npocrenic  acids  (that  are  formed  by  the 
oxidation  of  ulmic  and  humic  acids,)  have  such  decided 
acid  characters,  —  crenic  acid  especially,  which  has  a 
strongly  sour  taste — that  we  cannot  well  doubt  their  dis 
solving  action. 


EMPLOYMENT   IN    AGRICULTURE.  37 

IY. — The  influence  of  peat  on  the  temperature  of  light 
soils  dressed  with  it  may  often  be  of  considerable  practi 
cal  importance.  A  light  dry  soil  is  subject  to  great  va 
riations  of  temperature,  and  rapidly  follows  the  changes 
of  the  atmosphere  from  cold  to  hot,  and  from  hot  to  cold. 
In  the  summer  noon  a  sandy  soil  becomes  so  warm  as  to 
be  hardly  endurable  to  the  feel,  and  again  it  is  on  such 
soils  that  the  earliest  frosts  take  effect.  If  a  soil  thus 
subject  to  extremes  of  temperature  have  a  dressing  of 
peat,  it  will  on  the  one  hand  not  become  so  warm  in  the 
hot  day,  and  on  the  other  hand  it  will  not  cool  so  rapidly, 
nor  so  much  in  the  night ;  its  temperature  will  be  ren 
dered  more  uniform,  and  on  the  whole,  more  conducive  to 
the  welfare  of  vegetation.  This  regulative  effect  on  tem 
perature  is  partly  due  to  the  stores  of  water  held  by  peat. 
In  a  hot  day  this  water  is  constantly  evaporating,  and 
this,  as  all  know,  is  a  cooling  process.  At  night  the  peat 
absorbs  vapor  of  water  from  the  air,  and  condenses  it 
within  its  pores,  this  condensation  is  again  accompanied 
with  the  evolution  of  heat. 

It  appears  to  be  a  general,  though  not  invariable  fact, 
that  dark  colored  soils,  other  things  being  equal,  are  con 
stantly  the  warmest,  or  at  any  rate  maintain  the  temper 
ature  most  favorable  to  vegetation.  It  has  been  repeat 
edly  observed  that  on  light-colored  soils  plants  mature 
more  rapidly,  if  the  earth  be  thinly  covered  with  a  coat 
ing  of  some  black  substance.  Thus  Lampadins,  Professor 
in  the  School  of  Mines  at  Freiberg,  a  town  situated  in  a 
mountainous  part  of  Saxony,  found  that  he  could  ripen 
melons,  even  in  the  coolest  summers,  by  strewing  a  coat 
ing  of  coal-dust  an  inch  deep  over  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
In  some  of  the  vineyards  of  the  Rhine,  the  powder  of  a 
black  slate  is  employed  to  hasten  the  ripening  of  the  grape. 

Girardin,  an  eminent  French  agriculturist,  i:l  a  series  of 
experiments  on  the  cultivation  of  potatoes,  found  that  the 


38  PEAT    AXD    ITS    USES. 

time  of  their  ripening  varied  eight  to  fourteen  days,  ac 
cording  to  the  character  of  the  soil.  He  found,  on  the 
25th  of  August,  in  a  very  dark  soil,  made  so  by  the  pres 
ence  of  much  humus  or  decaying  vegetable  matter,  twenty- 
six  varieties  ripe ;  in  sandy  soil  but  twenty,  in  clay  nine 
teen,  and  in  a  white  lime  soil  only  sixteen. 

It  cannot  be  doubted  then,  that  the  effect  of  dressing  a 
light  sandy  or  gravelly  soil  with  peat,  or  otherwise  en 
riching  it  in  vegetable  matter,  is  to  render  it  warmer,  in 
the  sense  in  which  that  word  is  usually  applied  to  soils. 
The  upward  range  of  the  thermometer  is  not,  indeed,  in 
creased,  but  the  uniform  warmth  so  salutary  to  our  most 
valued  crops  is  thereby  secured. 

In  the  light  soils  stable-manure  wastes  too  rapidly  be 
cause,  for  one  reason,  at  the  extremes  of  high  tempera 
ture,  oxidation  and  decay  proceed  with  great  rapidity, 
and  the  volatile  portions  of  the  fertilizer  are  used  up  faster 
than  the  plant  can  appropriate  them,  so  that  not  only  are 
they  Avasted  during  the  early  periods  of  growth,  but  they 
are  wanting  at  a  later  period  when  their  absence  may 
prove  the  failure  of  a  crop. 

B.  The  ingredients  and  qualities  which  make  peat  a 
direct  fertilizer  next  come  under  discussion.  We  shall 
notice : 

The  organic  matters,  including  nitrogen  (ammonia 
and  nitric  acid)  (I) : 

The  inorganic  or  mineral  ingredients  (II) : 
Peculiarities  in  the  decay  of  Peat  (III),  and 

Institute  a  comparison  between  peat  and  stable  manure 
(IV). 

I. — Under  this  division  we  have  to  consider : 
1.    The  organic  matters  as  direct  food  to  plants. 
Thirty  years  ago,  when  Chemistry  and  Vegetable  Phys- 


EMPLOYMENT   IN    AGRICULTURE.  39 

iology  began  to  be  applied  to  Agriculture,  the  opinion 
was  firmly  held  among  scientific  men,  that  the  organic 
parts  of  humus — by  which  we  understand  decayed  veg 
etable  matter,  such  as  is  found  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
in  all  good  soils,  and  abounds  in  many  fertile  ones,  such 
as  constitutes  the  leaf-mold  of  forests,  such  as  is  produced 
in  the  fermenting  of  stable  manure,  and  that  forms  the 
principal  part  of  swamp-muck  and  peat, — are  the  true 
nourishment  of  vegetation,  at  any  rate  of  the  higher  or 
ders  of  plants,  those  which  supply  food  to  man  and  to 
domestic  animals. 

In  1840,  Liebig,  in  his  celebrated  treatise  on  the  "Ap 
plications  of  Chemistry  to  Agriculture  and  Physiology," 
gave  as  his  opinion  that  these  organic  bodies  do  not  nour 
ish  vegetation  except  by  the  products  of  their  decay.  He 
asserted  that  they  cannot  enter  the  plant  directly,  but 
that  the  water,  carbonic  acid  and  ammonia  resulting  from 
their  decay,  are  the  substances  actually  imbibed  by  plants, 
and  from  these  alone  is  built  up  the  organic  or  combusti 
ble  part  of  vegetation. 

To  this  day  there  is  a  division  of  opinion  among  scien 
tific  men  on  this  subject,  some  adopting  the  views  of  Lie- 
big,  others  maintaining  that  certain  soluble  organic  mat 
ters,  viz.,  crenic  and  apocrenic  acids  are  proper  food  of 
plants. 

On  the  one  hand  it  has  been  abundantly  demonstrated 
that  these  organic  matters  are  not  at  all  essential  to  the 
growth  of  agricultural  plants,  and  can  constitute  but  a 
small  part  of  the  actual  food  of  vegetation  taken  in  the 
aggregate. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  are  acquainted  with  no  satisfac 
tory  evidence  that  the  soluble  organic  matters  of  the  soil 


40  PEAT   AND    ITS    USES. 

and  of  peat,  especially  the*crenates  and  apocrenates,  are 
not  actually  appropriated  by,  and,  so  far  as  they  go,  are 
not  directly  serviceable  as  food  to  plants. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  practice  has  abundantly  demonstrat 
ed  the  value  of  humus  as  an  ingredient  of  the  soil,  and 
if  not  directly,  yet  indirectly,  it  furnishes  the  material  out 
of  which  plants  build  up  their  parts. 

2.  The  organic  matters  of  peat  as  indirect  food  to 
plants.  Very  nearly  one-half,  by  weight,  of  our  common 
crops,  when  perfectly  dry,  consists  of  carbon.  The  sub 
stance  which  supplies  this  element  to  plants  is  the  gas, 
carbonic  acid.  Plants  derive  this  gas  mostly  from  the  at 
mosphere,  absorbing  it  by  means  of  their  leaves.  But 
the  free  atmosphere,  nt  only  a  little  space  above  the  soil, 
contains  on  the  average  but  330 o  of  its  bulk  of  this  gas, 
whereas  plants  flourish  in  air  containing  a  larger  quantity, 
and,  in  fact,  their  other  wants  being  supplied,  they  grow 
better  as  the  quantity  is  increased  to  TV  the  bulk  of  the 
air.  These  considerations  make  sufficiently  obvious  how 
important  it  is  that  the  soil  have  in  itself  a  constant  and 
abundant  source  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  As  before  said, 
organic  matter,  in  a  state  of  decay,  is  the  single  material 
which  the  farmer  can  incorporate  with  his  soil  in  order 
to  make  the  latter  a  supply  of  this  most  indispensable 
form  of  plant-food. 

When  organic  matters  decay  in  the  soil,  their  carbon 
ultimately  assumes  the  form  of  Carbonic  acid.  This  gas, 
constantly  exhaling  from  the  soil,  is  taken  up  by  the  foli 
age  of  the  crops,  and  to  some  extent  is  absorbed  likewise 
by  their  roots. 

Boussingault  &  Lewy  have  examined  the  air  inclosed  in 
the  interstices  of  various  soils,  and  invariably  found  it 


EMPLOYMENT   IN    AGRICULTURE. 


41 


much  richer  (10  to  400  times)  than  that  of  the  atmosphere 
above.     Here  follow  some  of  their  results  : 


CARBONIC    ACID   IN   SOILS. 


II.  lib3 


Designation  and  Condition  of  Soil. 


Sandy  subsoil  of  forest 0.24 


Loamy 

Surface  soil      "       "      

Clayey  soil  of  artichoke  field 

Soil  of  asparagus  bed,  nnmannred  for  one  year 

"    "          "  "     newly  manured 

Sandy  soil,  six  days  after  manuring,  and  three  days  of  rain. 

"        "     ten    "        "  "     . 

Compost  of  vegetable  mold 


Carbonic  Acid  in  Atmosphere. 


0.8-2 

0.86 

o.iic, 
o.ro 

1.54 
2.21 
9.74 
3.64 


4.326 
3,4-8 
5,768 
10.094 
10.94S 
10,!)4S 
11.536 
11.536 


14 
"8 
56 
71 
86 
172 
257 
1144 
772 


1:1 


0.025   50.S-2I) 


From  the  above  it  is  seen  that  in  soils  containing  little 
decomposing  organic  matters — as  the  forest  sub-soils — 
the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  is  no  greater  than  that  con 
tained  in  an  equal  bulk  of  the  atmosphere.  It  is  greater 
in  loamy  and  clayey  soils  ;  but  is  still  small.  In  the  arti 
choke  field  (probably  light  soil  not  lately  manured),  and 
even  in  an  asparagus  bed  unmanured  for  one  year,  the 
amount  of  carbonic  acid  is  not  greatly  larger.  In  newly 
manured  fields,  and  especially  in  a  Aredfetable,  compost, 
the  quantity  is  vastly  greater. 

The  organic  matters  which  come  from  manures',  or 
from  the  roots  and  other  residues  of  crops,  are  the  source 
of  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  soil.  These  matters  continually 
waste  in  yielding  this  gas,  and  must  be  supplied  anew. 
Boussirigault  found  that  the  rich  soil  of  his  kitchen-gar 
den  (near  Strasburg)  which  had  been  heavily  manured 


42  PEAT   AND    ITS    USES. 

from  the  barn-yard  for  many  years,  lost  one-third  of  its 
carbon  by  exposure  to  the  air  for  three  months  (July, 
August  and  September,)  being  daily  watered.  It  origi 
nally  contained  2.43  per  cent.  'At  the  conclusion  of  the 
experiment  it  contained  but  1.6D  per  cent,  having  lost 
0.83  per  cent. 

Peat  and  swamp-muck,  when  properly  prepared,  fur 
nish  carbonic  acid  in  large  quantities  during  their  slow 
oxidation  in  the  soil. 

3.  The  Nitrogen  of  Peat,  including  Ammonia  and 
Nitric  Acid. 

The  sources  of  the  nitrogen  of  plants,  and  the  real 
cause  of  the  value  of  nitrogenous  fertilizers,  are  topics  that 
have  excited  more  discussion  than  any  other  points  in 
Agricultural  Chemistry.  This  is  the  result  of  two  cir 
cumstances.  One  is  the  obscurity  in  which  some  parts 
of  the  subject  have  rested ;  the  other  is  the  immense  prac 
tical  and  commercial  importance  of  this  element,  as  a 
characteristic  and  essential  ingredient  of  the  most  precious 
fertilizers.  It  is  a  rule  that  the  most  valuable  manures, 
commercially  considered,  are  those  containing  the  most 
nitrogen.  Peruvian  guano,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  soda- 
saltpeter,  fish  and  flesh  manures,  bones  and  urine,  cost  the 
farmer  more  money  per  ton  than  any  other  manures  he 
buys  or  makes,  superphosphate  of  lime  excepted,  and  this 
does  not  find  sale,  for  general  purposes,  unless  it  contains 
several  per  centrof  nitrogen.  These  are,  in  the  highest 
sense,  nitrogenous  fertilizers,  and,  if  deprived  of  their  ni 
trogen,  they  would  lose  the  greater  share  of  their  fertiliz 
ing  power. 

The  importance  of  the  nitrogen  of  manures  depends 
upon  the  fact  that  those  forms  (compounds)  of  nitrogen 
which  are  capable  of  supplying  it  to  vegetation  are  com 
paratively  scarce. 


EMPLOYMENT    IX    AGRICULTURE.  43 

It  has  long  been  known  that  peat  contains  a  consider 
able  quantity  of  nitrogen.  The  average  amount  in  thirty 
specimens,  analyzed  under  the  author's  direction,  includ 
ing  peats  and  swamp  mucks  of  all  grades  of  quality,  is 
equivalent  to  1|  per  cent,  of  the  air-dried  substance,  or 
more  than  thrice  as  much  as  exists  in  ordinary  stable 
or  yard  manure.  In  several  peats  the  amount  is  as  high 
as  2.4 per  cent.,  and  in  one  case  2.9  per  cent,  were  found. 

Of  these  thirty  samples,  one-half  were  largely  mixed 
with  soil,  and  contained  from  15  to  60  per  cent,  of  min 
eral  matters. 

Reducing  them  to  an  average  of  15  per  cent,  of  water 
and  5  per  cent,  of  ash,  they  contain  2.1  per  cent,  of  nitro 
gen,  while  the  organic  part,  considered  free  from  water 
and  mineral  substances,  contains  on  the  average  2.6  per 
cent.  See  table,  page  90. 

The  five  peats,  analyzed  by  Websky  and  Chevandier, 
as  cited  on  page  24,  considered  free  from  water  and  ash, 
contain  an  average  of  1.8  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 

We  should  not  neglect  to  notice  that  peat  is  often  com 
paratively  poor  in  nitrogen.  Of  the  specimens,  examined 
in  the  Yale  Analytical  Laboratory,  several  contained  but 
half  a  per  cent,  or  less.  So  in  the  analyses  of  Websky, 
one  sample  contained  but  0.77  per  cent,  of  the  element 
in  question. 

As  concerns  the  state  of  combination  in  which  nitrogen 

O 

exists  in  peat,  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion.  Mulder 
regards  it  as  chiefly  occurring  in  the  form  of  ammonia 
(a  compound  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen),  united  to  the  or 
ganic  acids  from  which  it  is  very  difficult  to  separate  it. 
Recent  investigations  indicate  that  in  general,  peat  con 
tains  but  a  small  proportion  of  ready-formed  ammonia. 

The  great  part  of  the  nitrogen  of  peat  exists  in  an  in 
soluble  and  inert  form :  but,  by  the  action  of  the  atmos- 


44 


PEAT   AND   ITS    USES. 


phere  upon  it,  especially  when  mixed  with  and  divided  by 
the  soil,  it  gradually  becomes  available  to  vegetation  to  as 
great  an  extent  as  the  nitrogen  of  ordinary  fertilizers. 

It  appears  from  late  examinations  that  weathered  peat 
may  contain  nitric  acid  (compound  of  nitrogen  with  oxy 
gen)  in  a  proportion  which,  though  small,  is  yet  of  great 
importance,  agriculturally  speaking.  What  analytical 
data  we  possess  are  subjoined. 

PROPORTIONS   OP   NITROGEN,    ETC.,    IN   PEAT. 


Analyst. 

Total  Nitro 
gen. 

.  1  in  nil}- 
nia,per 
cent. 

Nitric  acid. 

1—  Brown  Peat  
2—  B  hick  Peat  
3-Peat  
4—  Peat  

Air  dry  (?) 
Driecl  at  212° 

Boussingault 
Keichardt* 

2.20 
Undetermined 

0.018 
(J.025 
0.152 
0.165 

o.ooo 

Undetermined 
0.483 
0.525 

5—  Peat  
6-Peat  

« 

« 

« 

0.305 
0.335 

0.241 
0.421 

Specimens  3,  4  and  5,  are  swamp  (or  heath)  mucks,  and 
have  been  weathered  for  use  in  flower-culture.  3  and  4 
are  alike,  save  that  3  has  been  weathered  a  year  longer 
than  4.  They  contain  respectively  41,  56  and  67  per  cent. 
of  organic  matter. 

Sample  6,  containing  86  per  cent,  of  organic  matter,  is 
employed  as  a  manure  with  great  advantage,  and  probably 
was  weathered  before  analysis.  It  contained  85  per  cent. 
of  organic  substance. 

O 

More  important  to  us  than  the  circumstance  that  this 
peat  contains  but  little  or  no  ammonia  or  nitric  acid,  and 
the  other  contains  such  or  such  a  fraction  of  one  per 
cent,  of  these  bodies,  is  the  grand  fact  that  all  peats  may 
yield  a  good  share  of  their  nitrogen  to  the  support  of 
crops,  when  properly  treated  and  applied. 

Under  the  influence  of  Liebig's  teachings,  which  were 
logically  based  upon  the  best  data  at  the  disposal  of  this 
distinguished  philosopher  when  he  wrote  25  years  ago,  it 


*  Reichardi's  analyses  are  probably  inaccurate,  and  give  too  much  ammonia 
and  nitric  acid. 


EMPLOYMENT    IX    AGRICULTURE.  45 

has  been  believed  that  the  nitrogen  of  a  fertilizer,  in  order 
to  be  available,  must  be  converted  into  ammonia  and  pre 
sented  in  that  shape  to  the  plant.  It  has  been  recently 
made  clear  that  nitric  acid,  rather  than  ammonia,  is  the 
form  of  nitrogenous  food  which  is  most  serviceable  to  veg 
etation,  and  the  one  which  is  most  abundantly  supplied 
by  the  air  and  soil.  The  value  of  ammonia  is  however 
positive,  and  not  to  be  overlooked. 

When  peat,  properly  prepared  by  weathering  or  com 
posting,  is  suitably  incorporated  with  a  poor  or  light  soil, 
it  slowly  suffers  decomposition  and  wastes  away.  If  it  be 
wet,  and  air  have  access  in  limited  quantity,  especially  if 
lime  be  mixed  with  it,  a  portion  of  its  nitrogen  is  gradu 
ally  converted  into  ammonia.  With  full  access  of  air  ni 
tric  acid  is  produced.  In  either  case,  it  appears  that  a 
considerable  share  of  the  nitrogejn  escapes  in  the  free  state 
as  gas,  thereby  becoming  useless  to  vegetation  until  it 
shall  have  become  converted  again  into  ammonia  or  nitric 
acid.  It  happens  in  a  cultivated  soil  that  the  oxygen  of 
the  air  is  in  excess  at  the  surface,  and  less  abundant  as  we 
go  down  until  we  get  below  organic  matters  :  it  happens 
that  one  day  it  is  saturated  with  water  more  or  less,  and 
another  day  it  is  dry,  so  that  at  one  time  we  have  the 
conditions  for  the  formation  of  ammonia,  and  at  another, 
those  favorable  to  producing  nitric  acid.  In  this  way,  so 
far  as  our  present  knowledge  warrants  us  to  affirm,  or 
ganic  matters,  decaying  in  the  soil,  continuously  yield  por 
tions  of  their  nitrogen  in  the  forms  of  ammonia  and  nitric 
acid  for  the  nourishment  of  plants. 

The  farmer  who  skillfully  employs  as  a  fertilizer  a  peat 
containing  a  good  proportion  of  nitrogen,  may  thus  ex 
pect  to  get  from  it  results  similar  to  what  would  come 
from  the  corresponding  quantity  of  nitrogen  in  guano  or 
stable  manure. 

But  the  capacity  of  peat  for  feeding  crops  with  nitro- 


46  PEAT    AND    ITS    USES. 

gen  appears  not  to  stop  here.  Under  certain  conditions, 
the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air  which  cannot  be  directly 
appropriated  by  vegetation,  is  oxidized  in  the  pores  of 
the  soil  to  nitric  acid,  and  thus,  free  of  expense  to  the 
farmer,  his  crops  are  daily  dressed  with  the  most  prec 
ious  of  all  fertilizers. 

This  gathering  of  useless  nitrogen  from  the  air,  and 
making  it  over  into  plant-food  cannot  go  on  in  a  soil  desti 
tute  of  organic  matter,  requires  in  fact  that  vegetable  re 
mains  or  humified  substances  of  some  sort  be  present 
there.  The  evidence  of  this  statement,  whose  truth  was 
maintained  years  ago  as  a  matter  of  opinion  by  many  of 
the  older  chemists,  has  recently  become  nearly  a  mutter 
of  demonstration  by  the  investigations  of  Boussingault 
and  Knop,  while  the  explanation  of  it  is  furnished  by  the 
researches  of  Schoenbein '  and  Zabelin.  To  attempt  any 
elucidation  of  it  here  would  require  more  space  than  is 
at  our  disposal. 

It  is  plain  from  the  contents  of  this  paragraph  that  peat 
or  swamp  muck  is,  in  general,  an  abundant  source  of  ni 
trogen,  and  is  often  therefore  an  extremely  cheap  means 
of  replacing  the  most  rare  and  costly  fertilizers. 

II. — With  regard  to  the  inorganic  matters  of  peat  con 
sidered  as  food  to  plants,  it  is  obvious,  that,  leaving  out 
of  the  account  for  the  present,  some  exceptional  cases, 
they  are  useful  as  far  as  they  go. 

In  the  ashes  of  peats,  we  almost  always  find  small 
quantities  of  sulphate  of  lime,  magnesia  and  phosphoric 
acid.  Potash  and  soda  too,  are  often  present,  though 
rarely  to  any  considerable  amount.  Carbonate  and  sul 
phate  of  lime  are  large  ingredients  of  the  ashes  of  about 
one-half  of  the  thirty-three  peats  and  swamp  mucks  I 
have  examined.  The  ashes  of  the  other  half  are  largely 
mixed  with  sand  and  soil,  but  in  most  cases  also  contain 


EMPLOYMENT   IN   AGRICULTURE. 


47 


considerable  sulphate  of  lime,  and  often  carbonates  of 
lime  and  magnesia. 

In  one  swamp-muck,  from  Milford,  Conn.,  there  was 
found  but  two  per  cent,  of  ash,  at  least  one-half  of  which 
was  sand,  and  the  remainder  sulphate  of  lime,  (gypsum.) 
In  other  samples  20,  30,  50  and  even  60  per  cent,  remained 
after  burning  off  the  organic  matter.  In  these  cases  the 
ash  is  chiefly  sand.  The  amount  of  ash  found  in  those 
peats  which  were  most  free  from  sand,  ranges  from  five 
to  nine  per  cent.  Probably  the  average  proportion  of 
true  ash,  viz. :  that  derived  from  the  organic  matters 
themselves,  not  including  sand  and  accidental  ingredients, 
is  not  far  from  five  per  cent. 

In  twenty-two  specimens  of  European  peat,  examined 
by  Websky,  Ja3ckel,  Walz,  Wiegmann,  Einhof  and  Ber- 
thier,  eleven  contained  from  0.6  to  3.5  per  cent,  of  ash. 
The  other  eleven  yielded  from  5.3  to  22  per  cent.  The 
average  of  the  former  was  2.4,  that  of  the  latter  12.7 per 
cent.  Most  of  these  contained  a  considerable*  proportion 
of  sand  or  soil. 

Variation  in  the  composition  as  well  as  in  the  quantity 
of  ash  is  very  great. 

Three  analyses  of  peat-ashes  have  been  executed  at  the 
author's  instance  with  the  subjoined  results  : 

ANALYSES   OF   PEAT-ASHES. 


Potash                            

A. 

0.69 

B. 

0.80 

c. 

3.46 

Soda 

0.58 

trace. 

40  52 

35  59 

6  60 

6  06 

4.92 

1.05 

Oxide  of  i  i  on  and  alumina  

5.17 
0  50 

9.08 
0.77 

15.59 
1.55 

5  52 

10  41 

404 

0.15 

0.43 

0.70 

8  23 

1  40  ) 

19  60 

22  28  > 

67  01 

Sand                                       .               ... 

12  11 

15.04  ) 

09  13 

100.74 

100.00 

A  was  furnished  by  Mr.  Daniel  Buck,  Jr.,  of  Poquon- 
nock,  Conn.,  and  conies  from  a  peat  which  he  uses  as  fuel. 


48 


PEAT    AND    ITS    USES. 


B  was  sent  by  Mr.  J.  H.  Stan  wood,  of  Colebrook,  Conn. 

C  was  sent  from  Guilford,  Conn.,  by  Mr.  Andrew 
Foote.* 

A  and  B,  after  excluding  sand,  are  seen  to  consist 
chiefly  of  carbonates  and  sulphates  of  lime  and  magnesia. 
III.  contains  a  very  large  proportion  of  sand  and  soluble 
silica,  much  iron  and  alumina,  less  lime  and  sulphuric  acid. 
Potash  and  phosphoric  acid  are  three  times  more  abun 
dant  in  C  than  in  the  others. 

Instead  of  citing  in  full  the  results  of  Websky,  Jreekel 
and  others,  it  will  serve  our  object  better  to  present  the 
maximum,  minimum  and  average  proportions  of  the  im 
portant  ingredients  in  twenty-six  recent  analyses,  (includ 
ing  these  three,)  that  have  come  under  the  author's  notice. 
». 

VARIATIONS   AND   AVERAGES   IN   COMPOSITION   OF   PEAT-ASHES. 


Minimum.     Maximum. 


Average. 


Potash 

Soda    ................... 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Alumina 

Oxide  of  iron 

Sulphuric  ac.id  .......................  none 

Chlorine  ....................    " 

Phosphoric  acid  .....................    " 

Sand...  ........  0.99 


0.05 
none 

472 
none 

0.9'J 
none 


3.64 0.89  per  cent. 

5.73  0.83 

58.38 24.00 

24.39 3.20 

20.50  5.78 

73.33  .....* 18.70 

37.40 7.50 

6.50 0.60 

6.29 2.56 

56.97 25.50 


It  is  seen  from  the  above  figures  that  the  ash  of  peat 
varies  in  composition  to  an  indefinite  degree.  Lime  is  the 
only  ingredient  that  is  never  quite  wanting,  and  with  the 
exception  of  sand,  it  is  on  the  average  the  largest.  Of 
the  other  agriculturally  valuable  components,  sulphuric 
acid  has  the  highest  average  ;  then  follows  magnesia ;  then 
phosphoric  acid,  and  lastly,  potash  and  soda :  all  of  these, 
however,  may  be  nearly  or  quite  lacking. 


*  These  analyses  were  executed— A  by    Professor  G.  F.  Barker;  B  by  Mr. 
O.  C.  Sparrow;  C  by  Mr.  Peter  Collier. 


EMPLOYMENT   IX    AGRICULTURE.  49 

Websky,  who  has  recently  made  a  study  of  the  com 
position  of  a  number  of  German  peats,  believes  himself 
warranted  to  conclude  that  peat  is  so  modified  in  appear 
ance  by  its  mineral  matters,  that  the  quantity  or  charac 
ter  of  the  latter  may  be  judged  of  in  many  cases  by  the 
eye.  He  remarks,  (Journal  fuer  Praktische  Chemie, 
Bd.  92,  S.  87,)  "that  while  for  example  the  peats  contain 
ing  much  saiid  and  clay  have  a  red-brown  powdery  ap 
pearance,  and  never  assume  a  lustrous  surface  by  pres 
sure;  those  which  are  very  rich  in  lime,  are  black,  sticky 
when  moist,  hard  and  of  a  waxy  luster  on  a  pressed  sur 
face,  Avhen  dry :  a  property  which  they  share  indeed  with 
very  dense  peats  that  contain  little  ash.  Peats  impreg 
nated  with  iron  are  easily  recognized.  Their  peculiar 
odor,  and  their  changed  appearance  distinguish  them  from 
all  others." 

From  my  own  investigations  on  thirty  specimens  of 
Connecticut  peats,  I  am  forced  to  disagree  with.  Websky 
entirely,  and  to  assert  that  except  as  regards  sand,  which 
may  often  be  detected  by  the  eye,  there  is  no  connexion 
whatever  between  the  quantity  or  character  of  the  ash 
and  the  color,  consistency,  density  or  any  other  external 
quality  of  the  peat. 

The  causes  of  this  variation  in  the  ash-content  of  peat, 
deserve  a  moment's  notice.  The  plants  that  produce 
peat  contain  considerable  proportions  of  lime,  magnesia, 
alkalies,  sulphuric  acid,  chlorine  and  phosphoric  acid,  as 
seen  from  the  following  analysis  by  Websky. 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ASH   OF   SPHAGNUM. 

Potash    17.2 

So.ia 8.3 

Lime 11.8 

Magnesia 6.7 

Sulphuric  acid     6.5 

Chlorine 6.2 

Phosphoric  acH 6.7 

Percent,  of  ash, '2.5. 

The  mineral  matters  of  the  sphagnum  do  not  all  be- 
3 


50  PEAT  AND    ITS   USES. 

come  ingredients  of  the  peat ;  but,  as  rapidly  as  the  moss 
decays  below,  its  soluble  matters  are  to  a  great  degree 
absorbed  by  the  vegetation,  which  is  still  living  and  grow 
ing  abo\7e.  Again,  when  a  stream  flows  through  a  peat- 
bed,  soluble  matters  are  carried  away  by  the  water,  which 
is  often  dark-brown  from  the  substances  dissolved  in  it. 
Finally  the  soil  of  the  adjacent  land  is  washed  or  blown 
upon  the  swamp,  in  greater  or  less  quantities. 

III. — The  decomposition  of  peat  in  the  soil  offers  some 
peculiarities  that  are  worthy  of  notice  in  this  place. 
Peat  is  more  gradual  and  regular  in  decay  than  the  vege 
table  matters  of  stable  dung,  or  than  that  furnished  by 
turning  under  sod  or  green  crops.  It  is  thus  a  more 
steady  and  lasting  benefit,  especially  in  light  soils,  out  of 
which  ordinary  vegetable  manures  disappear  too  rapidly. 
The  decay  of  peat  appears  to  proceed  through  a  regular 
series  of  steps.  In  the  soil,  especially  in  contact  with 
soluble  alkaline  bodies,  as  ammonia  and  lime,  there  is  a 
progressive  conversion  of  the  insoluble  or  less  soluble  into 
soluble  compounds.  Thus  the  inert  matters  that  resist  the 
immediate  solvent  power  of  alkalies,  absorb  oxygen  from 
the  air,  and  form  the  humic  or  ulmic  acids  soluble  in  alka 
lies  ;  the  humic  acids  undergo  conversion  into  crenic  acid, 
and  this  body,  by  oxidation,  passes  into  apocrenic  acid. 
The  two  latter  are  soluble  in  water,  and,  in  the  porous 
soil,  they  are  rapidly  brought  to  the  end-results  of  decay, 
viz. :  water,  carbonic  acid,  ammonia  and  free  nitrogen. 

Great  differences  must  be  observed,  however,  in  the 
rapidity  with  which  these  changes  take  place.  Doubtless 
they  go  on  most  slowly  in  case  of  the  fibrous  compact 
peats,  and  perhaps  some  of  the  lighter  and  more  porous 
samples  of  swamp  muck,  would  decay  nearly  as  fast  as 
rotted  stable  dung. 

It  might  appear  from  the  above  statement,  that  the  ef- 


EMPLOYMENT   IX   AGRICULTURE.  51 

feet  of  exposing  peat  to  the  air,  as  is  done  when  it  is  in 
corporated  with  the  soil,  would  be  to  increase  relatively 
the  amount  of  soluble  organic  matters ;  but  the  truth  is, 
that  they  are  often  actually  diminished.  In  fact,  the  ox 
idation  and  consequent  removal  of  these  soluble  matters 
(crenic  and  apocrenic  acids,)  is  likely  to  proceed  more 
rapidly  than  they  can  be  produced  from  the  less  soluble 
humic  acid  of  the  peat. 

IV. —  Comparison  of  Peat  with  Stable  Manure. 

The  fertilizing  value  of  peat  is  best  understood  by  com 
paring  it  with  some  standard  manure.  Stable  manure  is 
obviously  that  fertilizer  whose  effects  are  most  universally 
observed  and  appreciated,  and  by  setting  analyses  of  the 
two  side  by  side,  we  may  see  at  a  glance,  what  are  the 
excellencies  and  what  the  deficiencies  of  peat.  In 
order  rightly  to  estimate  the  worth  of  those  ingredients 
which  occur  in  but  small  proportion  in  peat,  we  must  re 
member  that  it,  like  stable  manure,  may  be,  and  usually 
should  be,  applied  in  large  doses,  so  that  in  fact  the  small 
est  ingredients  come  upon  an  acre  in  considerable  quanti 
ty.  In  making  our  comparison,  we  will  take  the  analysis 
of  Peat  from  the  farm  of  Mr.  Daniel  Buck,  Jr.,  of  Poquon- 
nock,  Conn.,  and  the  average  of  several  analyses  of  rotted 
stable  dung  of  good  quality. 

No.  7",  is  the  analysis  of  Peat ;  No.  II,  that  of  well  rot 
ted  stable  manure :  — 

/.  ii. 

Water  expelled  at  212  degrees 79.000  79.00 

^  .  r  Soluble  in  dilute  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda..  7.312-) 

n  a  «  1                                                                                                        f  I4-16 

w  c~  Unsoluble  in  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda 12.210J 

Potash . .  o.OlO  0.65 

Soda   0.009 

Lime     '  0.60S  0.57 

Magnesia 0.091  0.19 

Phosphoric  acid  0.008  0.-3 

Sulphuric  acid       ,....  o.0*2  0.27 

Nitrogen o'.GOO  o!55 

Matters,  soluble  in  water 0.450  4.42 

To  make  the  comparison  as  just  as  possible,  the  peat  is 


52  PEAT    AND    ITS    USES. 

calculated  with  the  same  content  of  -  water,  that  stable 
dung  usually  has. 

We  observe  then,  that  the  peat  contains  in  a  given 
quantity,  about  one-third  more  organic  matter ',  an  equal 
amount  of  lime  and  nitrogen  ;  but  is  deficient  in  potash, 
magnesia,  phosphoric  and  sulphuric  acids. 

The  deficiencies  of  this  peat  in  the  matter  of  composi 
tion  may  be  corrected,  as  regards  potash,  by  adding  to 
100  Ibs.  of  it  1  Ib.  of  potash  of  commerce,  or  5  Ibs.  of  un- 
leached  wood-ashes ;  as  regards  phosphoric  and  sulphuric 
acids,  by  adding  1  Ib.  of  good  super-phosphate,  or  1  Ib. 
each  of  bone  dust  and  plaster  of  Paris. 

In  fact,  the  additions  just  named,  will  convert  any 
fresh  peat,  containing  not  more  than  80  per  cent,  of  wa 
ter  and  not  less  than  20  per  cent,  of  organic  matter,  into 
a  mixture  having  as  much  fertilizing  matters  as  stable 
dung,  with  the  possible  exception  of  nitrogen. 

It  is  a  fact,  however,  that  two  manures  may  reveal  to 
the  chemist  the  same  composition,  and  yet  be  very  unlike 
in  their  fertilizing  effects,  because  their  conditions  are  un 
like,  because  they  differ  in  their  degrees  of  solubility  or 
availability. 

As  before  insisted  upon,  it  is  true  in  general,  that  peat 
is  more  slow  of  decomposition  than  yard-manure,  and  this 
fact,  which  is  an  advantage  in  an  amendment,  is  a  disad 
vantage  in  a  fertilizer.  Though  there  may  be  some  peats, 
or  rather  swamp  mucks,  which  are  energetic  and  rapid  in 
their  action,  it  seems  that  they  need  to  be  applied  in  larger 
quantities  than  stable  manure  in  order  to  produce  corres 
ponding  fertilizing  effects.  In  many  cases  peat  requires 
some  preparation  by  weathering,  or  by  chemical  action — 
u  fermentation  "  —  induced  by  decomposing  animal  mat 
ters  or  by  alkalies.  This  topic  will  shortly  be  discussed. 

We  adopt,  as  a  general  fact,  the  conclusion  that  peat  i:? 
inferior  in  fertilizing  power  to  stable  manure. 


EMPLOYMENT   IX   AGRICULTURE.  53 

Experience  asserts,  however,  with  regard  to  some  indi 
vidual  kinds,  that  they  are  equal  to  common  yard  manure 
without  any  preparation  whatever. 

Mr.  Daniel  Buck,  of  Poquonnock,  Conn.,  says,  of  the 
'muck,'  over-lying  the  peat,  whose  composition  has  just 
been  compared  with  stable  manure,  that  it  "has  been  ap 
plied  fresh  to  meadow  with  good  results ;  the  grass  is  not 
as  tall  but  thicker  and  finer,  and  of  a  darker  green  in  the 
spring,  than  when  barn-yard  manure  is  spread  on." 

A  swamp  muck,  from  Mr.  A.  M.  Haling,  Rockville, 
Conn.,  "  has  been  used  as  a  top-dressing,  on  grass,  with 
excellent  results.  It  is  a  good  substitute  for  barn-yard 
manure." 

A  peat,  from  Mr.  Russel  TJ.  Peck,  of  Berlin,  Conn., 
"  has  been  used  fresh,  on  corn  and  meadow,  with  good 
effect." 

Of  the  peat,  from  the  '  Beaver  Pond,'  near  New  Haven, 
Mr.  Chauncey  Goodyear,  says,  "  it  has  been  largely  used 
in  a  fresh  state,  and  in  this  condition  is  as  good  as  cow- 
dung." 

Mr.  Henry  Keeler,  remarks,  concerning  a  swamp  muck 
occurring  at  South  Salem,  N.  Y.,  that  "  it  has  been  used 
in  the  fresh  state,  applied  to  corn  and  potatoes,  and  ap 
pears  to  be  equal  to  good  barn  manure :  "  further :  —  "it 
has  rarely  been  weathered  more  than  two  months,  and 
then  applied  side  by  side  with  the  best  yard  manure  has 
given  equally  good  results." 

A  fe\v  words  as  to  the  apparent  contradiction  between 
Chemistry,  which  says  that  peat  is  not  equal  to  stable  dung 
as  a  fertilizer,  and  Practice,  which  in  these  cases  affirms 
that  it  is  equal  to  our  standard  manure. 

In  the  first  place,  the  chemical  conclusion  is  a  general 
one,  and  does  not  apply  to  individual  peats,  which,  in  a 
few  instances,  may  be  superior  to  yard  manure.  The 


54  PEAT   AND    ITS    USES. 

practical  judgment  also  is,  that,  in  general,  yard  manure 
is  the  best. 

To  go  to  the  individual  cases  ;  second :  A  peat  in  which 
nitrogen  exists  in  as  large  a  proportion  as  is  found  in  sta 
ble  or  yard  manure,  being  used  in  larger  quantity,  or  be 
ing  more  durable  in  its  action,  may  for  a  few  seasons  pro 
duce  better  results  than  the  latter,  merely  on  account  of 
the  presence  of  this  one  ingredient,  it  may  in  fact,  for  the 
soil  and  crop  to  which  it  is  applied,  be  a  better  fertilizer 
than  yard  manure,  because  nitrogen  is  most  needed  in  that 
soil,  and  yet  for  the  generality  of  soils,  or  in  the  long  run, 
it  may  prove  to  be  an  inferior  fertilizer. 

Again ;  third — the  melioration  of  the  physical  qualities 
of  a  soil,  the  amendment  of  its  dryness  and  excessive  po 
rosity,  by  means  of  peat,  may  be  more  effective  for  agri 
cultural  purposes,  than  the  application  of  tenfold  as  much 
fertilizing,  i.  e.  plant-feeding  materials ;  in  the  same  way 
that  the  mere  draining  of  an  over-moist  soil  often  makes 

O 

it  more  productive  than  the  heaviest  manuring. 

2. —  0)i  the  characters  of  Peat  that  are  detrimental,  or 
that  may  sometimes  need  correction  before  it  is  agricul 
turally  useful. 

I. — JBad  effects  on  wet  heavy  soils. 

We  have  laid  much  stress  on  the  amending  qualities  of 
peat,  when  applied  to  dry  and  leachy  soite,  which  by  its 
use  are  rendered  more  retentive  of  moisture  and  manure. 
These  properties,  which  it  would  seem,  are  just  adapted 
to  renovate  very  light  land,  under  certain  circumstances, 
may  become  disadvantageous  on  heavier  soils.  On  clays 
no  application  is  needed  to  retain  moisture.  They  are  al 
ready  too  wet  as  a  general  thing. 

Peat,  when  put  into  the  soil,  lasts  much  longer  than 
stubble,  or  green  crops  plowed  in,  or  than  long  manure. 


EMPLOYMENT  IN  AGRICULTURE.  55 

If  buried  too  deeply,  or  put  into  a  heavy  soil,  especially 
if  in  large  quantity,  it  does  not  decay,  but  remains  wet, 
and  tends  to  make  a  bog  of  the  field  itself. 

For  soils  that  are  rather  heavy,  it  is  therefore  best  to 
compost  the  peat  with  some  rapidly  fermenting  manure. 
We  thus  get  a  compound  which  is  quicker  than  muck,  and 
slower  than  stable  manure,  etc.,  and  is  therefore  better 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  soil  than  either  of  these 
would  be  alone. 

Here  it  will  be  seen  that  much  depends  on  the  character 
of  the  peat  itself.  If  light  and  spongy,  and  easily  dried, 
it  may  be  used  alone  with  advantage  on  loamy  soils, 
whereas  if  dense,  and  coherent,  it  would  most  likely  be  a 
poor  amendment  on  a  soil  which  has  much  tendency  to 
become  compact,  and  therefore  does  not  readily  free  it 
self  from  excess  of  water. 

But  even  a  clay  soil,  if  thorough-drained  and  deeply 
plowed,  may  be  wonderfully  improved  by  even  a  heavy 
dressing  of  muck,  as  then,  the  water  being  let  off,  the 
muck  can  exert  no  detrimental  action ;  but  operates  as  ef 
fectually  to  loosen  a  too  heavy  soil,  as  in  case  of  sand,  it 
makes  an  over-porous  soil  compact  or  retentive.  A  clay 
may  be  made  friable,  if  well  drained,  by  incorporating 
with  it  any  substance  as  lime,  sand,  long  manure  or  muck, 
which  interposing  between  the  clayey  particles,  prevents 
their  adhering  together. 

II. — Noxious  ingredients. 

(a)  Vitriol  peat.  Occasionally  a  peat  is  met  with  which 
is  injurious  if  applied  in  the  fresh  state  to  crops,  from  its 
containing  some  substance  which  exerts  a  poisonous  action 
on  vegetation.  The  principal  detrimental  ingredients 
tliat  occur  in  peat,  appear  to  be  sulphate  of  protoxide  of 


56  PEAT   A1STD    ITS   USES. 

iron, — the  same  body  that  is  popularly  known  under  the 
names  copperas  and  green-vitriol, — and  sulphate  of  alumi 
na,  the  astringent  component  of  alum. 

I  have  found  these  substances  ready  formed  in  large 
quantity  in  but  one  of  the  peats  that  I  have  examined, 
viz. :  that  sent  me  bv  Mr.  Pen-in  Scarborough,  of  Brook- 

*/  o      " 

lyn,  Conn.  This  peat  dissolved  in  water  to  the  extent  of 
15 per  cent.,  and  the  soluble  portion,  although  containing 
some  organic  matter  and  sulphate  of  lime,  consisted  in 
great  part  of  green-vitriol. 

Portions  of  this  muck,  when  thrown  up  to  the  air,  be 
come  covered  with  "a  white  crust,  having  the  taste  of 
alum  or  saltpeter." 

The  bed  containing  this  peat,  though  drained,  yields  but 
a  little  poor  bog  hay,  and  the  peat  itself,  even  after  weath 
ering  for  a  year,  when  applied,  mixed  with  one-fifth  of 
stable  manure  to  corn  in  the  hill,  gave  no  encouraging  re 
sults,  though  a  fair  crop  was  obtained.  It  is  probable 
that  the  sample  analyzed  was  much  richer  in  salts  of  iron 
and  alumina,  than  the  average  of  the  muck. 

Green-vitriol  in.  minute  doses  is  not  hurtful,  but  rather 
beneficial  to  vegetation ;  but  in  larger  quantity  it  is  fa 
tally  destructive. 

In  a  salt-marsh  mud  sent  me  by  the  Rev.  Win.  Clift,  of 
Stonington,  Conn.,  there  was  found  sulphate  of  iron  in 
considerable  quantity. 

This  noxious  substance  likewise  occurred  in  small 
amount  in  swamp  muck  from  E.  Hoyt,  Esq.,  New  Canaan, 
Conn.,  and  in  hardly  appreciable  quantity  in  several  oth 
ers  that  I  have  examined.  Besides  green-vitriol,  it  is 
possible  that  certain  organic  salts  of  iron,  may  be  delete 
rious. 

The  poisonous  properties  of  vitriol-peats  may  be  effec 
tually  corrected  by  composting  with  lime,  or  wood-ashes. 
By  the  action  of  these  substances,  sulphate  of  lime, 


EMPLOYMENT   IX   AGRICULTURE.  57 

(plaster  of  Paris)  is  formed,  while  the  iron  separates  as 
peroxide,  which,  being  insoluble,  is  without  deleterious 
effect  on  vegetation.  Where  only  soluble  organic  salts 
of  iron  (crenate  of  iron)  are  present,  simple  exposure  to 
the  air  suffices  to  render  them  innocuous. 

(b)  The  acidity  of  Peats.  —  Many  writers   have   as 
serted  that  peat  and  muck  possess  a  hurtful  "acidity " 
which  must  be  corrected  before  they  can  be  usefully  em 
ployed.     It  is  indeed  a  fact,  that  peat  consists  largely  of 
acids,  but,  except  perhaps  in  the  vitriol-peats,  (those  con 
taining  copperas.)  they  are  so  insoluble,  or  if  soluble,  are 
so  quickly  modified  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen,  that 
they  do  not  exhibit  any  "  acidity  "  that  can  be  deleterious 
to  vegetation.     It  is  advised  to  neutralize  this  supposed 
acidity  by  lime  or  an  alkali  before  using  peat  as  a  fertil 
izer  or  amendment,  and  there  is  great  use  in  such  mix 
tures  of  peat  with  alkaline  matters,  as  we  shall  presently 
notice  under  the  head  of  composts. 

By  the  word  acidity  is  conveyed  the  idea  of  something 
hurtful  to  plants.  This  something  is,  doubtless,  in  many 
cases,  the  salts  of  iron  we  have  just  noticed.  In  others, 
it  is  simply  the  inertness,  "  coldness  "  of  the  peat,  which 
is  not  positively  injurious,  but  is,  for  a  time  at  least,  of  no 
benefit  to  the  soil. 

(c)  Resinous  matters  are  mentioned  by  various  writers 
as  injurious  ingredients  of  peat,  but  I  find  no  evidence 
that   this   notion   is    well-founded.      The  peat   or   muck 
formed  from  the  decay  of  resinous  wood  and  leaves  does 
not  appear  to  be  injurious,  and  the  amount  of  resin  in 
peat  is  exceedingly  small. 

3. — The  Preparation  of  Peat  for  Agricultural  use. 

(a)    Excavation. — As  to  the  time  and  manner  of  get 
ting  out  peat,  the  circumstances  of  each  case  must  deter- 
3* 


53  PEAT   ANY)   ITS    USES. 

mine.  I  only  venture  here  to  offer  a  few  hints  on  this 
subject,  which  belongs  so  exclusively  to  the  farm.  The 
month  of  August  is  generally  the  appropriate  time 
for  throwing  up  peat,  as  then  the  swamps  are  usually  most 
free  from  water,  and  most  accessible  to  men  and  teams ; 
but  peat  is  often  dug  to  best  advantage  in  the  winter,  not 
only  on  account  of  the  cheapness  of  labor,  and  from 
there  being  less  hurry  with  other  matters  on  the  firm  at 
that  season,  but  also,  because  the  freezing  and  thawing 
of  the  peat  that  is  thrown  out,  greatly  aid  to  disintegrate 
it  and  prepare  it  for  use. 

A  correspondent  of  The  Homestead,  signing  himself 
"  Commentator,"  has  given  directions  for  getting  out  peat 
that  are  well  worth  the  attention  of  farmers.  He  says  :  — 

"The  composting  of  muck  and  peat,  with  our  stable 
and  barn-yard  manures,  is  surely  destined  to  become  one 
of  the  most  important  items  in  farm  management  through 
out  all  the  older  States  at  least.  One  of  the  difficulties 
which  lie  in  the  way,  is  the  first  removal  of  the  muck 
from  its  low  and  generally  watery  bed ;  to  facilitate  this, 
in  many  locations,  it  is  less  expensive  to  dry  it  before 
carting,  by  beginning  an  excavation  at  the  border  of  the 
marsh  in  autumn,  sufficiently  wide  for  a  cart  path,  throw 
ing  the  muck  out  upon  the  surface  on  each  side,  and  on  a 
floor  of  boards  or  planks,  to  prevent  it  from  absorbing 
moisture  from  the  wet  ground  beneath ;  this  broad  ditch 
to  be  carried  a  sufficient  length  and  depth  to  obtain  the 
requisite  quantity  of  muck.  Thus  thrown  out,  the  two 
piles  are  now  in  a  convenient  form  to  be  covered  with 
boards,  and,  if  properly  done,  the  muck  kept  covered 
till  the  succeeding  autumn,  will  be  found  to  be  dry  and 
light,  and  in  some  cases  may  be  carted  away  on  the  sur 
face,  or  it  may  be  best  to  let  it  remain  a  few  months 
longer  until  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  has  become  suffi 
ciently  frozen  to  bear  a  team ;  it  can  then  be  more  easily 


EMPLOYMENT   IN   AGRICULTURE.  59 

loaded  upon  a  sled  or  sleigh,  and  drawn  to  the  yards  and 
barn.  In  other  localities,  and  where  large  quantities  are 
wanted,  and  it  lies  deep,  a  sort  of  wooden  railroad  and 
inclined  plane  can  be  constructed  by  means  of  a  plank 
track  for  the  wheels  of  the  cart  to  run  upon,  the  team 
walking  between  these  planks,  and  if  the  vehicle  is  in 
clined  to  'run  off  the  track,'  it  may  usually  be  prevented 
by  scantlings,  say  four  inches  thick,  nailed  upon  one  of 
the  tracks  on  each  side  of  the  place  where  the  wheel 
should  run.  Two  or  more  teams  and  carts  may  now  be 
employed,  returning  into  the  excavation  outside  of  this 
track.  As  the  work  progresses,  the  track  can  be  extended 
at  both  ends,  and  by  continuing  or  increasing  the  inclina 
tion  at  the  upper  end,  a  large  and  high  pile  may  be  made, 
and  if  kept  dry,  will  answer  for  years  for  composting,  and 
can  be  easily  drawn  to  the  barn  at  any  time." 

( b)  Exposure,  weathering,  or  seasoning  of  peat.  —  In 
some  cases,  the  chief  or  only  use  of  exposing  the  thrown- 
up  peat  to  the  action  of  the  air  and  weather  during  sev 
eral  months  or  a  whole  year,  is  to  rid  it  of  the  great 
amount  of  water  which  adheres  to  it,  and  thus  reduce  its 
bulk  and  weight  previous  to  cartage. 

The  general  effect  of  exposure  as  indicated  by  my  anal 
yses,  is  to  reduce  the  amount  of  matter  soluble  in  water, 
and  cause  peats  to  approach  in  this  respect  a  fertile  soil, 
so  that  instead  of  containing  2,  4,  or  6  per  cent,  of  sub 
stances  soluble  in  water,  as  at  first,  they  are  brought  to 
contain  but  one-half  these  amounts,  or  even  less.  This 
change,  however,  goes  on  so  rapidly  after  peat  is  mingled 
with  the  soil,  that  previous  exposure  on  this  account  is 
rarely  necessary,  and  most  peats  might  be  used  perfectly 
fresh  but  for  the  difficulty  often  experienced,  of  reducing 
them  to  such  a  state  of  division  as  to  admit  of  proper 
mixture  with  the  soil. 


60  PEAT  A:NT>  ITS  TTSES. 

The  coherent  peats  which  may  be  cut  out  in  tough 
blocks,  must  be  weathered,  in  order  that  the  fibres  of  moss 
or  grass-roots,  which  give  them  their  consistency,  may 
be  decomposed  or  broken  to  an  extent  admitting  of  easy 
pulverization  by  the  instruments  of  tillage. 

The  subjection  of  fresh  and  wet  peat  to  frost,  speedily 
destroys  its  coherence  and  reduces  it  to  the  proper  state 
of  pulverization.  For  this  reason,  fibrous  peat  should  be 
exposed  when  wet  to  winter  weather. 

Another  advantage  of  exposure  is,  to  bring  the  peat  in 
to  a  state  of  more  active  chemical  change.  Peat,  of  the 
deeper  denser  sorts,  is  generally  too  inert  ("  sour,"  cold)  to 
be  directly  useful  to  the  plant.  By  exposure  to  the  air  it 
appears  gradually  to  acquire  the  properties  of  the  humus 
of  the  soil,  or  of  stable  manure,  which  are  vegetable  mat 
ters,  altered  by  the  same  exposure.  It  appears  to  become 
more  readily  oxidable,  more  active,  chemically,  and  thus 
more  capable  of  exciting  or  rather  aiding  vegetable 
growth,  which,  so  far  as  the  soil  is  concerned,  is  the  re 
sult  of  chemical  activities. 

Account  has  been  already  given  of  certain  peats,  which, 
used  fresh,  are  accounted  equal  or  nearly  equal  to  stable 
manure.  Others  have  come  under  the  writer's  notice, 
which  have  had  little  immediate  effect  when  used  before 
seasoning. 

Mr.  J.  H.  Stanwood  says  of  a  peat,  from  Colebrook, 
Conn.,  that  it  "has  been  used  to  some  extent  as  a  top- 
dressing  for  grass  and  other  crops  with  satisfactory  re 
sults,  although  no  particular  benefit  was  noticeable  during 
the  first  year.  After  that,  the  effects  might  be  seen  for  a 
number  of  years." 

Rev.  Wm.  Clift  observes,  concerning  a  salt  peat,  from 
Stonington,  Conn. :  —  "It  has  not  been  used  fresh  ;  is  too 
acid ;  even  potatoes  do  not  yield  well  in  it  the  first  season, 
without  manure." 


EMPLOYMENT    IN    AGRICULTURE.  6] 

The  nature  of  the  chemical  changes  induced  by  weath 
ering,  is  to  some  extent  understood  so  far  as  the  nitrogen, 
the  most  important  fertilizing  element,  is  concerned.  The 
nitrogen  of  peat,  as  we  have  seen,  is  mostly  inert,  a  small 
portion  of  it  only,  existing  in  a  soluble  or  available  form. 
By  weathering,  portions  of  this  nitrogen  become  converted 
into  nitric  acid.  This  action  goes  on  at  the  surface  of  the 
heap,  where  it  is  most  fully  exposed  to  the  air.  Below, 
where  the  peat  is  more  moist,  ammonia  is  formed,  perhaps 
simply  by  the  reduction  of  nitric  acid — not  unlikely  also, 
by  the  transformation  of  inert  nitrogen.  On  referring  to 
the  analyses  given  on  page  44,  it  is  seen,  that  the  first 
two  samples  contain  but  little  ammonia  and  no  nitric  acid. 
Though  it  is  not  stated  what  was  the  condition  of  these 
peats,  it  is  probable  they  had  not  been  weathered.  The 
other  four  samples  were  weathered,  and  the  weathering 
had  been  the  more  effectual  from  the  large  admixture  of 
sand  with  them.  They  yielded  to  the  analyst  very  con 
siderable  quantities  of  ammonia  and  nitrates. 

When  a  peat  contains  sulphate  of  protoxide  of  iron,  or 
soluble  organic  salts  of  iron,  to  an  injurious  extent,  these 
may  be  converted  into  other  insoluble  and  innocuous 
bodies,  by  a  sufficient  exposure  to  the  air.  Sulphate  of 
protoxide  of  iron  is  thus  changed  into  sulphate  of  perox 
ide  of  iron,  which  is  insoluble,  and  can  therefore  exert  no 
hurtful  eifect  on  vegetation,  while  the  soluble  organic 
bodies  of  peat  are  oxydized  and  either  converted  into 
carbonic  acid  gas,  carbonate  of  ammonia  and  water,  or 
else  made  insoluble. 

It  is  not  probable,  however,  that  merely  throwing  up  a 
well  characterized  vitriol-peat  into  heaps,  and  exposing  it 
thus  imperfectly  to  the  atmosphere,  is  sufficient  to  correct 
its  bad  qualities.  Such  peats  need  the  addition  of  some 
alkaline  body,  as  ammonia,  lime,  or  potash,  to  render  them 
salutary  fertilizers. 


62  PEAT    AXD    ITS    USES. 

(c)  This  brings  its  to  the  subject  of  composting,  which 
appears  to  be  the  best  means  of  taking  full  advantage  of 
all  the  good  qualities  of  peat,  and  of  obviating  or  neutral 
izing  the  ill  results  that  might  follow  the  use  of  some  raw 
peats,  either  from  a  peculiarity  in  their  composition, 
(soluble  organic  compounds  of  iron,  sulphate  of  protoxide 
of  iron,)  or  from  too  great  indestructibility.  The  chemi 
cal  changes  (oxidation  of  iron  and  organic  acids],  which 
prepare  the  inert  or  even  hurtful  ingredients  of  peat  to 
minister  to  the  support  of  vegetation,  take  place  most 
rapidly  in  presence  of  certain  other  substances. 

The  subtances  which  rapidly  induce  chemical  change  in 
peats,  are  of  t\vo  kinds,  viz. :  1. —  animal  or  vegetable 
matters  that  are  highly  susceptible  to  alteration  and  de 
cay,  and  2. —  alkalies,  either  ammonia  coming  from  the 
decomposition  of  animal  matters,  or  lime,  potash  and  soda. 

A  great  variety  of  matters  may  of  course  bo  employed 
for  making  or  mixing  with  peat  composts ;  but  there  are 
comparatively  few  which  allow  of  extensive  and  economi 
cal  use,  and  our  notice  will  be  confined  to  these. 

First  of  all,  the  composting  of  peat  with  animal  ma 
nures  deserves  attention.  Its  advantages  may  be  summed 
up  in  two  statements. 

1. — It  is  an  easy  and  perfect  method  of  economizing  all 
such  manures,  even  those  kinds  most  liable  to  loss  by  fer 
mentation,  as  night  soil  and  horse-dung ;  and, 

2. — It  develops  most  fully  and  speedily  the  inert  fertil 
izing  qualities  of  the  peat  itself. 

Without  attempting  any  explanation  of  the  changes 
undergone  by  a  peat  and  manure  compost,  further  than 
to  say  that  the  fermentation  which  begins  in  the  manure 
extends  to  and  involves  the  peat,  reducing  the  whole  near 
ly,  if  not  exactly,  to  the  condition  of  well-rotted  dung, 
and  that  in  this  process  the  peat  effectually  prevents  the 
loss  of  nitrogen  as  ammonia, —  I  may  appropriately  give 


EMPLOYMENT    IN    AGRICULTURE.  63 

the  practical  experience  of  formers  who  have  proved  in 
the  most  conclusive  manner  how  profitable  it  is  to  devote 
a  share  of  time  and  labor  to  the  manufacture  of  this  kind 
of  compost. 

Preparation  of  Composts  with  Stable  Manure. — The 
best  plan  of  composting  is  to  have  a  water  tight 
trench,  four  inches  deep  and  twenty  inches  wide,  con 
structed  in  the  stable  floor,  immediately  behind  the  cattle, 
and  every  morning  put  a  bushel-basketful  of  muck  be 
hind  each  animal.  In  this  way  the  urine  is  perfectly  ab 
sorbed  by  the  muck,  while  the  warmth  of  the  freshly 
voided  excrements  so  facilitates  the  fermentative  process, 
that,  according  to  Mr.  F.  Holbrook,  Brattleboro,  Yt, 
who  has  described  this  method,  much  more  muck  can 
thus  be  well  prepared  for  use  in  the  spring,  than  by  any 
of  the  ordinary  modes  of  composting.  When  the  dung 
and  muck  are  removed  from  the  stable,  they  should  be 
well  intermixed,  mid  as  fist  as  the  compost  is  prepared,  it 
should  be  put  into  a  compact  heap,  and  covered  with  a 
layer  of  muck  several  inches  thick.  It  will  then  hardly 
require  any  shelter  if  used  in  the  spring. 

If  the  peat  be  sufficiently  dry  and  powdery,  or  free  from 
tough  lumps,  it  may  usefully  serve  as  bedding,  or  litter 
for  horses  and  cattle,  as  it  absorbs  the  urine,  and  is  suffi 
ciently  mixed  with  the  dung  in  the  operation  of  cleaning 
the  stable.  It  is  especially  good  in  the  pig-pen,  where  the 
animals  themselves  work  over  the  compost  in  the  most 
thorough  manner,  especially  if  a  few  kernels  of  corn  be 
occasionally  scattered  upon  it. 

Mr.  Edwin  Hoyt,  of  New  Canaan,  Conn.,  writes  : — "  Our 
horse  stables  are  constructed  with  a  movable  floor  and 
pit  beneath,  which  holds  20  loads  of  muck  of  25  bushels 
per  load.  Spring  and  fall,  this  pit  is  filled  with  fresh 
muck,  which  receives  all  the  urine  of  the  horses,  and  being 


64  PEAT   AXD    ITS    USES. 

occasionally  worked  over  and  mixed,  furnishes  us  annu 
ally  with  40  loads  of  the  most  valuable  manure." 

"  Our  stables  are  sprinkled  with  muck  every  morning, 
at  the  rate  of  one  bushel  per  stall,  and  the  smell  of  am 
monia,  etc.,  so  offensive  in  most  stables,  is  never  perceived 
in  ours.  Not  only  are  the  stables  kept  sweet,  bnt  the  am 
monia  is  saved  by  this  procedure." 

When  it  is  preferred  to  make  the  compost  out  of  doors, 
the  plan  generally  followed  is  to  lay  down  a  bed  of 
weathered  peat,  say  eight  to  twelve  inches  thick ;  cover 
this  with  a  layer  of  stable  dung,  of  four  to  eight  inches  ; 
put  on  another  stratum  of  peat,  and  so,  until  a  heap  of 
three  to  four  feet  is  built  up.  The  heap  may  be  six  to 
eight  feet  wide,  and  indefinitely  long.  It  should  be  fin 
ished  with  a  thick  coating  of  peat,  and  the  manure  should 
be  covered  as  fast  as  brought  out. 

The  proportions  of  manure  and  peat  should  vary  some 
what  according  to  their  quality  and  characters.  Strawy 
manure,  or  that  from  milch-cows,  will  "ferment"  less  peat 
than  clear  dung,  especially  when  the  latter  is  made  by 
horses  or  highly  fed  animals.  Some  kinds  of  peat  heat 
much  easier  than  others.  There  are  peats  which  will  fer 
ment  of  themselves  in  warm  moist  weather — even  in  the 
bog,  giving  off  ammonia  in  perceptible  though  small 
amount.  Experience  is  the  only  certain  guide  as  to  the  rel 
ative  quantities  to  be  employed,  various  proportions  from 
one  to  five  of  peat  for  one  of  manure,  by  bulk,  being  used. 

When  the  land  is  light  and  needs  amending,  as  regards 
its  retentive  power,  it  is  best  to  make  the  quantity  of  peat 
as  large  as  can  be  thoroughly  fermented  by  the  manure. 

The  making  of  a  high  heap,  and  the  keeping  it  trim  and 
in  shape,  is  a  matter  requiring  more  labor  than  is  gener 
ally  necessary.  Mr.  J.  II.  Stanwood,  of  Colebrook,  Conn., 
writes  me :  — 


EMPLOYMENT   IN    AGRICULTURE.  65 

"  My  method  of  composting  is  as  follows :  I  draw  my 
muck  to  the  barn-yard,  placing  the  loads  as  near  together 
as  I  can  tip  them  from  the  cart.  Upon  this  I  spread 
whatever  manure  I  have  at  hand,  and  mix  with  the  feet 
of  the  cattle,  and  heap  up  with  a  scraper." 

Peat  may  be  advantageously  used  to  save  from  waste 
the  droppings  of  the  yard. 

Mr.  Edwin  Hoyt,  of  New  Canaan,  Conn.,  says:  — 
"  We  use  muck  largely  in  our  barn-yards,  and  after  it  be 
comes  thoroughly  saturated  and  intermixed  with  the  drop 
pings  of  the  stock,  it  is  piled  up  to  ferment,  and  the  yard 
is  covered  again  with  fresh  muck." 

Mr.  N.  Hart,  Jr.,  of  West  Cornwall,  Conn.,  writes :  — 
"  In  the  use  of  muck  we  proceed  as  follows :  Soon  after 
haying  we  throw  up  enough  for  a  year's  use,  or  several 
hundred  loads.  In  the  fall,  the  summer's  accumulation  in 
hog-pens  and  barn  cellars  is  spread  upon  the  mowing 
grounds,  and  a  liberal  supply  of  muck  carted  in  and 
spread  in  the  bottoms  of  the  cellars,  ready  for  the  season 
for  stabling  cattle.  When  this  is  well  saturated  with  the 
drippings  of  the  stables,  a  new  supply  is  added.  The  ac 
cumulation  of  the  winter  is  usually  applied  to  the  land  for 
the  corn  crop,  except  the  finer  portion,  which  is  used  to 
top-dress  meadow  land.  A  new  supply  is  then  drawn  in 
for  the  swine  to  work  up.  This  is  added  to  from  time  to 
time,  and  as  the  swine  are  fed  on  whey,  they  will  convert 
a  large  quantity  into  valuable  manure  for  top-dressing 
mowing  land." 

A  difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  treatment  of  the 
compost.  Some  hold  it  indifferent  whether  the  peat  and 
manure  are  mixed,  or  put  in  layers,  when  the  composting 
begins.  Others  assert,  that  the  fermentation  proceeds 
better  when  the  ingredients  are  stratified.  Some  direct, 
that  the  compost  should  not  be  stirred.  The  general  tes 
timony  is,  that  mixture,  at  the  outset,  is  as  effectual 


66  PEAT    AND    ITS   USES. 

as  putting  up  in  layers ;  but,  if  the  manure  be  strawy,  it 
is,  of  course,  difficult  or  impracticable  to  mix  at  first. 
Opinion  also  preponderates  in  favor  of  stirring,  during  or 
after  the  fermentation. 

Mr.  Hoyt  remarks :  —  "  We  are  convinced,  that  the 
often er  a  compost  pile  of  yard  manure  and  muck  is 
worked  over  after  fermenting,  the  better.  We  work  it 
over  and  add  to  it  a  little  more  muck  and  other  material, 
and  the  air  being  thus  allowed  to  penetrate  it,  a  new  fer 
mentation  or  heating  takes  place,  rendering  it  more  decom 
posable  and  valuable." 

Rev.  Wm.  Clift,  writes:  —  "Three  or  four  loads  of 
muck  to  one  of  stable  manure,  put  together  in  the  fall  or 
winter  in  alternate  layers,  forked  over  twice  before 
spreading  and  plowing  in,  may  represent  the  method  of 
composting." 

Mr.  Adams  White,  of  Brooklyn,  Conn.,  proceeds  in  a 
different  manner.  He  says :  —  "In  composting,  20  loads 
are  drawn  on  to  upland  in  September,  and  thrown  up  in  a 
long  pile.  Early  in  the  spring  20  loads  of  stable  manure 
are  laid  along  side,  and  covered  with  the  muck.  As  soon 
as  it  has  heated  moderately,  the  whole  is  forked  over  and 
well  mixed." 

Those  who  have  practiced  making  peat  composts  with 
their  yard,  stable,  and  pen  manure,  almost  invariably  find 
them  highly  satisfactory  in  use,  especially  upon  light  soils. 

A  number  of  years  ago,  I  saw  a  large  pile  of  compost 
in  the  farm-yard  of  Mr.  Pond,  of  Milford,  Conn.,  and  wit 
nessed  its  eifect  as  applied  by  that  gentleman  to  a  field 
of  sixteen  acres  of  fine  gravelly  or  coarse  sandy  soil. 
The  soil,  from  having  a  light  color  and  excessive  porosity, 
had  become  dark,  unctuous,  and  retentive  of  moisture,  so 
that  during  the  drouth  of  1856,  the  crops  on  this  field 
were  good  and  continued  to  flourish,  while  on  the  contig 
uous  land  they  were  dried  up  and  nearly  ruined.  This 


EMPLOYMENT   IX    AGRICULTURE.  67 

compost  was  made  from  a  light  muck,  that  contained  but 
three  per  cent,  of  ash  (more  than  half  of  which  was  sand), 
and  but  1.2  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  in  the  air-dry  state  — 
(twenty  per  cent,  of  water).  Three  loads  of  this  muck 
were  used  to  one  of  stable  manure. 

Here  follow  some  est' mates  of  the  value  of  this  compost 
by  practical  men.  They  are  given  to  show  that  older 
statements,  to  the  same  effect,  cannot  be  regarded  as  ex 
aggerated. 

Mr.  J.  II.  Stan  wood,  of  Colebrook,  Conn.,  says:  — 
"  Experiments  made  by  myself,  have  confirmed  me  in  the 
opinion  that  a  compost  of  equal  parts  of  muck  and  stable 
manure  is  equal  to  the  same  quantity  of  stable  manure." 

Mr.  Daniel  Buck,  Jr.,  of  Poquonnock,  Conn.,  remarks: 
—  "8  loa^s  of  muck  and  4  of  manure  in  compost,  Avhen 
properly  forked  over,  are  equal  to  12  loads  of  barn-yard 
manure  on  sandy  soil." 

Rev.  Win.  Clift,  of  Stonington,  Conn,,  writes  :  —  "I  con 
sider  a  compost  made  of  one  load  of  stable  manure  and 
three  of  muck,  equal  in  value  to  four  loads  of  yard  manure." 

Mr.  N".  Hart,  Jr.,  of  West  Cornwall,  Conn.,  observes  of 
a  peat  sent  by  him  for  analysis :  —  "  We  formerly  com 
posted  it  in  the  yard  with  stable  manure,  but  have  re 
modeled  our  stables,  and  now  use  it  as  an  absorbent  and 
to  increase  the  bulk  of  manure  to  double  its  original  quan 
tity.  We  consider  the  mixture  more  valuable  than  the 
same  quantity  of  stable  manure."  Again,  "so  successful 
has  been  the  use  of  it,  that  we  could  hardly  carry  on 
our  farming  operations  without  it." 

Mr.  Adams  White,  of  Brooklyn,  Conn.,  states: — "The 
compost  of  equal  bulks  of  muck  and  stable  manure,  has 
been  used  for  corn  (with  plaster  in  the  hill,)  on  dry  sandy 
soil  to  great  advantage.  I  consider  the  compost  worth 
more  per  cord  than  the  barn-yard  manure." 


68  PEAT   AND    ITS    USES. 

Night  Soil  is  a  substance  which  possesses,  when  fresh, 
the  most  valuable  fertilizing  qualities,  in  a  very  concen 
trated  form.  It  is  also  one  which  is  liable  to  rapid  and 
almost  complete  deterioration,  as  I  have  demonstrated  by 
analyses.  The  only  methods  of  getting  the  full  effect  of 
this  material  are,  either  to  use  it  fresh,  as  is  done  by  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese  on  a  most  extensive  and  offensive 
scale;  or  to  compost  it  before  it  can  decompose.  The 
former  method,  will,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  never  find  accept 
ance  among  us.  The  latter  plan  has  nearly  all  the  advan 
tages  of  the  former,  without  its  unpleasant  features. 

When  the  night  soil  falls  into  a  vault,  it  may  be  com 
posted,  by  simply  sprinkling  fine  peat  over  its  surface, 
once  or  twice  weekly,  as  the  case  may  require,  i.  e.  as 
often  as  a  bad  odor  prevails.  The  quantity  thus  added, 
may  be  from  twice  to  ten  times  the  bulk  of  the  night  soil, 
—  the  more  within  these  limits,  the  better.  "When  the 
vault  is  full,  the  mass  should  be  removed,  worked  well 
over  and  after  a  fu\v  days  standing,  will  be  ready  to  use 
to  manure  corn,  tobacco,  etc.,  in  the  hill,  or  for  any  pur 
pose  to  which  guano  or  poudrette  is  applied.  If  it  can 
not  be  shortly  used,  it  should  be  made  into  a  com 
pact  heap,  and  covered  with  a  thick  stratum  of 
peat.  When  signs  of  heating  appear,  it  should  be 
watched  closely;  and  if  the  process  attains  too  much 
violence,  additional  peat  should  be  worked  into  it. 
Drenching  with  water  is  one  of  the  readiest  means  of 
checking  too  much  heating,  but  acts  only  temporarily. 
Dilution  with  peat  to  a  proper  point,  which  experience 
alone  can  teach,  is  the  surest  way  of  preventing  loss.  It 
should  not  be  forgotten  to  put  a  thick  layer  of  peat  at  the 
bottom  of  the  vault  to  begin  with. 

Another  excellent  plan,  when  circumstances  admit,  is, 
to  have  the  earth-floor  where  the  night  soil  drops,  level 
with  the  surface  of  the  ground,  or  but  slightly  excavated, 


EMPLOYMENT    IX    AGRICULTURE.  69 

and  a  shed  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  privy  to  shelter  a 
good  supply  of  peat  as  well  as  the  compost  itself.  Oper 
ations  are  begun  by  putting  down  a  layer  of  peat  to  re 
ceive  the  droppings;  enough  should  be  used  to  absorb  all 
the  urine.  When  this  is  nearly  saturated,  more  should 
be  sprinkled  on,  and  the  process  is  repeated  until  the  ac 
cumulations  must  be  removed  to  make  room  for  more. 
Then,  once  a  week  or  so,  the  whole  is  hauled  out  into  the 
shed,  well  mixed,  and  formed  into  a  compact  heap,  or 
placed  as  a  layer  upon  a  stratum  of  peat,  some  inches 
thick,  a^'d  covered  with  the  same.  The  quantity  of  first- 
class  compost  that  may  be  made  yearly  upon  any  farm,  if 
due  care  be  taken,  would  astonish  those  who  have  not 
tried  it.  James  Smith,  of  Deanston,  Scotland,  who  ori 
ginated  our  present  system  of  Thorough  Drainage,  as 
serted,  that  the  excrements  of  one  man  for  a  year,  are 
sufficient  to  manrnje  half  an  acre  of  land.  In  Belgium  the 
manure  from  such  a  source  lias  a  commercial  value  of 
$9.00  gold. 

It  is  certain,  that  the  skillful  farmer  may  make  consider 
ably  more  than  that  sum  from  it  in  New  England,  per  an 
num.  Mr.  Iloyt,  of  New  Canaan,  Conn.,  says :  — 

"  Our  privies  are  deodorized  by  the  use  of  muck,  which 
is  sprinkled  over  the  surface  of  the  pit  once  a  week,  and 
from  them  alone  AVC  thus  prepare  annually,  enough  "pou- 
drette"  to  manure  our  corn  in  the  hill." 

Peruvian  Guano,  so  serviceable  in  its  first  applications 
to  light  soils,  may  be  composted  with  muck  to  the  great 
est  advantage.  Guano  is  an  excellent  material  for  bring 
ing  muck  into  good  condition,  and  on  the  other  hand  the 
muck  most  effectually  prevents  any  waste  of  the  costly 
guano,  and  at  the  same  time,  by  furnishing  the  soil  with 
its  own  ingredients,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  prevents 
the  exhaustion  that  often  follows  the  use  of  guano  alone. 
The  quantity  of  muck  should  be  pretty  large  compared 


70  PEAT    AXD    ITS    USES. 

to  that  of  the  guano, — a  bushel  of  guano  will  compost  six, 
eight,  or  ten  of  muck.  Both  should  be  quite  fine,  and 
should  be  well  mixed,  the  mixture  should  be  moist  and 
kept  covered  with  a  layer  of  muck  of  several  inches  of 
thickness.  This  sort  of  compost  would  probably  be  suf 
ficiently  fermented  in  a  week  or  two  of  warm  weather, 
and  should  be  made  and  kept  under  cover. 

If  no  more  than  five  or  six  parts  of  muck  to  one  of 
guano  are  employed,  the  compost,  according  to  the  ex 
perience  of  Simon  Brown,  Esq.,  of  the  Boston  Cultivator, 
(Patent  Office  Report  for  1856),  will  prove  injurious,  if 
placed  in  the  hill  in  contact  with  seed,  but  may  be  applied 
broadcast  without  danger. 

The  Menhaden,  or  "  "White  fisW*,  so  abundantly  caught 
along  our  Sound  coast  during  the  summer  months,  or  any 
variety  of  fish  may  be  composted  with  muck,  so  as  to 
make  a  powerful  manure,  with  avoidance  of  the  exces 
sively  disagreeable  stench  which  is  produced  when  these 
fish  are  put  directly  on  the  land.  Messrs.  Stephen  Hoyt 
&  Sons,  of  New  Canaan,  Conn.,  make  this  compost  on  a 
large  scale.  I  cannot  do  better  than  to  give  entire  Mr. 
Edwin  Iloyt's  account  of  their  operations,  communicated 
to  me  several  years  ago. 

"  During  the  present  season,  (1858,)  we  have  composted 
about  200,000  white  fish  with  about  700  loads  (17,500 
bushels)  of  muck.  We  vary  the  proportions  somewhat 
according  to  the  crop  the  compost  is  intended  for.  For 
rye  we  apply  20  to  25  loads  per  acre  of  a  compost  made 
with  4,500  fish,  (one  load)  and  with  this  manuring,  no 
matter  how  poor  the  soil,  the  rye  will  be  as  large  as  a  man 
can  cradle.  Much  of  ours  we  have  to  reap.  For  oats  we 
use  less  fish,  as  this  crop  is  apt  to  lodge.  For  corn,  one 
part  fish  to  ten  or  twelve  muck  is  about  right,  while  for 
gracs  or  any  top-dressing,  the  proportion  of  fish  may  be 
increased." 


EMPLOYMENT   IX    AGRICULTURE.  71 

"  We  find  it  is  best  to  mix  the  fish  in  the  summer  and 
not  use  the  compost  until  the  next  spring  and  summer. 
Yet  we  are  obliged  to  use  in  September  for  our  winter 
rye  a  great  deal  of  the  compost  made  in  July.  We  usu 
ally  compost  the  first  arrivals  of  fish  in  June  for  our  win 
ter  grain  ;  after  this  pile  has  stood  three  or  four  weeks,  it 
is  worked  over  thoroughly.  In  this  space  of  time  the  fish 
become  pretty  well  decomposed,  though  they  still  pre 
serve  their  form  and  smell  outrageously.  As  the  pile  is 
worked  over,  a  sprinkling  of  muck  or  plaster  is  given  to 
retain  any  escaping  ammonia.  At  the  time  of  use  in  Sep 
tember  the  fish  have  completely  disappeared,  bones  and 
fins  excepted." 

"  The  effect  on  the  muck  is  to  blacken  it  and  make  it 
more  loose  and  crumbly.  As  to  the  results  of  the  use  of 
this  compost,  we  find  them  in  the  highest  degree  satis 
factory.  We  have  raised  30  to  35  bushels  of  rye  per  acre 
on  land  that  without  it  could  have  yielded  6  or  8  bushels 
at  the  utmost.  This  year  we  have  corn  that  will  give  60 
to  70  bushels  per  acre,  that  otherwise  would  yield  but  20 
to  25  bushels.  It  makes  large  potatoes,  excellent  turnips 
and  carrots." 

Fish  compost  thus  prepared,  is  a  uniform  mass  of  fishy 
but  not  putrefactive  odor,  not  disagreeable  to  handle.  It 
retains  perfectly  all  the  fertilizing  power  of  the  fish. 
Lands,  manured  with  this  compost,  will  keep  in  heart  and 
improve :  while,  as  is  well  known  to  our  coast  farmers, 
the  use  of  fish  alone  is  ruinous  in  the  end,  on  light  soils. 

It  is  obvious  that  any  other  easily  decomposing  ani 
mal  matters,  as  slaughter-house  offal,  soap  boiler's 
scraps,  glue  waste,,  horn  shavings,  shoddy r,  castor  pum- 
mace,  cotton  seed-meal,  etc,,  etc.,  may  be  composted  in  a 
similar  manner,  and  that  several  or  all  these  substances 
may  be  made  together  into  one  compost. 


72  PEAT   AND   ITS   USES. 

In  case  of  the  composts  with  yard  manure,  guano  and 
other  animal  matters,  the  alkali,  ammonia,  formed  in  the 
fermentation,  greatly  promotes  chemical  change,  and  it 
would  appear  that  this  substance,  on  some  accounts,  ex 
cels  all  others  in  its  efficacy.  The  other  alkaline  bodies, 
potash,  soda  and  lime,  are  however  scarcely  less  active 
in  this  respect,  and  being  at  the  same  time,  of  themselves, 
useful  fertilizers,  they  also  may  be  employed  in  preparing 
muck  composts. 

Potash-lye  and  soda-ash  have  been  recommended  for 
composting  with  muck ;  but,  although  they  are  no  doubt 
highly  efficacious,  they  are  too  costly  for  extended  use. 

The  other  alkaline  materials  that  may  be  cheaply  em 
ployed,  and  are  recommended,  are  wood-ashes,  leached  and 
unleached,  ashes  of  peat,  shell  marl,  (consisting  of  car 
bonate  of  lime,)  quick  lime,  gas  lime,  and  what  is  called 
"salt  and  lime  mixture" 

With  regard  to  the  proportions  to  be  used,  no  very  defi 
nite  rules  can  be  laid  down  ;  but  we  may  safely  follow 
those  who  have  had  experience  in  the  matter.  Thus,  to 
a  cord  of  muck,  which  is  about  100  bushels,  may  be  add 
ed,  of  unleached  wood  ashes  twelve  bushels,  or  of  leached 
wood  ashes  twenty  bushels,  or  of  peat  ashes  twenty  bush- 
els,or  of  marl,  or  of  gas  lime  twenty  bushels.  Ten  bushels 
of  quick  lime,  slaked  with  water  or  salt-brine  previous  to 
use,  is  enough  for  a  cord  of  muck. 

Instead  of  using  the  above  mentioned  substances  singly, 
any  or  all  of  them  may  be  employed  together. 

The  muck  should  be  as  fine  and  free  from  lumps  as 
possible,  and  must  be  intimately  mixed  with  the  other  in 
gredients  by  shoveling  over.  The  mass  is  then  thrown  up 
into  a  compact  heap,  which  may  be  four  feet  high.  When 
the  heap  is  formed,  it  is  well  to  pour  on  as  much  water 
as  the  mass  will  absorb,  (this  may  be  omitted  if  the  muck 


EMPLOYMENT   IX    AGRICULTURE.  73 

is  already  quite  moist,)  and  finally  the  whole  is  covered 
over  with  a  few  inches  of  pure  muck,  so  as  to  retain 
moisture  and  heat.  If  the  heap  is  put  up  in  the  Spring, 
it  may  stand  undisturbed  for  one  or  two  months,  when  it 
is  well  to  shovel  it  over  and  mix  it  thoroughly.  It  should 
then  be  built  up  again,  covered  with  fresh  muck,  and  al 
lowed  to  stand  as  before  until  thoroughly  decomposed. 
The  time  required  for  this  purpose  varies  with  the  kind 
of  muck,  and  the  quality  of  the  other  material  used. 
The  weather  and  thoroughness  of  intermixture  of  the  in 
gredients  also  materially  aifect  the  rapidity  of  decom 
position.  In  all  cases  five  or  six  months  of  summer 
weather  is  a  sufficient  time  to  fit  these  composts  for 
application  to  the  soil. 

Mr.  Stan  wood  of  Colebrook,  Conn.,  says  :  "  I  have  found 
a  compost  made  of  two  bushels  of  unleached  ashes  to 
twenty-five  of  muck,  superior  to  stable  manure  as  a  top- 
dressing  for  grass,  on  a  warm,  dry  soil." 

N.  Hart,  Jr.,  of  West  Cornwall,  Conn.,  states:  "  I  have 
mixed  25  bushels  of  ashes  with  the  "same  number  of  loads 
of  muck,  and  applied  it  to  £  of  an  acre.  The  result  was 
far  beyond  that  obtained  by  applying  300  Ibs.  best  guano 
to  the  same  piece." 

The  use  of  "  salt  and  lime  mixture "  is  so  strongly 
recommended,  that  a  few  words  may  be  devoted  to  its 
consideration. 

When  quick-lime  is  slaked  with  a  brine  of  common 
salt  (chloride  of  sodium),  there  are  formed  by  double  de 
composition,  small  portions  of  caustic  soda  and  chloride 
of  calcium,  which  dissolve  in  the  liquid.  If  the  solution 
stand  awhile,  carbonic  acid  is  absorbed  from  the  air, 
forming  carbonate  of  soda :  but  carbonate  of  soda  and 
chloride  of  calcium  instantly  exchange  their  ingredients, 
forming  insoluble  carbonate  of  lime  and  reproducing 
common  salt. 
4 


74  PEAT   AND    ITS    USES. 

When  the  fresh  mixture  of  quick-lime  and  salt  is  in 
corporated  with  any  porous  body,  as  soil  or  peat,  then, 
as  Graham  has  shown,  unequal  diffusion  of  the  caustic 
soda  and  chloride  of  calcium  occurs  from  the  point  where 
they  are  formed,  through  the  moist  porous  mass,  and  the 
result  is,  that  the  small  portion  of  caustic  soda  which 
diffuses  most  rapidly,  or  the  carbonate  of  soda  formed  by 
its  speedy  union  with  carbonic  acid,  is  removed  from  con 
tact  with  the  chloride  of  calcium. 

Soda  and  carbonate  of  soda  are  more  soluble  in  water 
and  more  strongly  alkaline  than  lime.  They,  therefore, 
act  on  peat  more  energetically  than  the  latter.  It  is  on 
account  of  the  formation  of  soda  and  carbonate  of  soda 
from  the  lime  and  salt  mixture,  that  this  mixture  exerts  a 
more  powerful  decomposing  action  than  lime  alone. 
Where  salt  is  cheap  and  wood  ashes  scarce,  the  mixture 
may  be  employed  accordingly  to  advantage.  Of  its  use 
fulness  we  have  the  testimony  of  practical  men. 

Says  Mr.  F.  Holbrook  of  Vermont,  (Patent  Office  Re 
port  for  1856,  page  193.)  "I  had  a  heap  of  seventy-five 
half  cords  of  muck  mixed  with  lime  in  the  proportion  of 
a  half  cord  of  muck  to  a  bushel  of  lime.  The  muck  was 
drawn  to  the  field  when  wanted  in  August.  A  bushel  of 
salt  to  six  bushels  of  lime  was  dissolved  in  water  enough 
to  slake  the  lime  down  to  a  fine  dry  powder,  the  lime 
being  slaked  no  faster  than  wanted,  and  spread  immedi 
ately  while  warm,  over  the  layers  of  muck,  which  were 
about  six  inches  thick ;  then  a  coating  of  lime  and  so  on, 
until  the  heap  reached  the  height  of  five  feet,  a  convenient 
width,  and  length  enough  to  embrace  the  whole  quantity 
of  the  muck.  In  about  three  weeks  a  powerful  decompo 
sition  was  apparent,  and  the  heap  was  nicely  overhauled, 
nothing  more  being  done  to  it  till  it  was  loaded  the  next 
Spring  for  spreading.  The  compost  was  spread  on  the 
plowed  surface  of  a  dry  sandy  loam  at  the  rate  of  about 


EMPLOY MENT   IX    AGRICULTURE.  75 

fifteen  cords  to  the  acre,  and  harrowed  in.  The  land  was 
planted  with  corn  and  the  crop  was  more  than  sixty  bush 
els  to  the  acre." 

Other  writers  assert  that  they  "  have  decomposed  with 
this  mixture,  spent  tan,  saw  dust,  corn  stalks,  swamp  muck, 
leaves  from  the  woods,  indeed  every  variety  of  inert  sub 
stance,  and  in  much  shorter  time  than  it  could  be  done 
by  any  other  means"  (Working  Farmer,  Vol.  III.  p.  280.) 

Some  experiments  that  have  a  bearing  on  the  efficacy 
of  this  compost  will  be  detailed  presently. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  soluble  and  more  active 
(caustic)  forms  of  alkaline  bodies  exert  a  powerful  decom 
posing  and  solvent  action  on  peat.  It  is  asserted  too  that 
the  nearly  insoluble  and  less  active  matters  of  this  kind, 
also  have  an  effect,  though  a  less  complete  and  rapid  one. 
Thus,  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  various  forms  of  chalk, 
shell  marl,*  old  mortar,  leached  ashes  and  peat  ashes, 
(for  in  all  these  it  is  the  chief  and  most  "  alkaline  "  in- 


*  Shell  marl,  consisting  of  fragments  and  powder  of  fresh -water  shells,  is 
frequently  met  with,  underlying  peat  beds.  Such  a  deposit  occurs  on  the  farm  of 
Mr.  John  Adams,  in  Salisbury,  Conn.  It  is  eight  to  (en  feet  thick.  An  air-dry 
sample,  analyzed  under  the  writer's  direction,  gave  results  as  follows  : 

Water 30.62 

Organic  ma,,er  j  •£*$£  £%*  ":."•-...:   ^  '£8  I     «2 

Carbonate  of  lime 57.09 

Sand  1.86 

Oxide  of  iron  and  alumina,  with  traces  of  potash,  magnesia, 
sulphuric  and  phosphoric  acid 3.91 

100.00 

Another  specimen  from  near  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  said  to  occur  there  in  immense 
quantities  underlying  peat,  contained,  by  the  author's  analysis  — 

Water 1.14 

Carbonate  of  lime 92.41 

Carbonate  of  magnesia 3.43 

Peroxide  of  iron  w  ith  a  trace  of  phosphoric  acid 0.92 

Sand 1.60 

69.50 


76  PEAT   AND    ITS    USES. 

gredient,)  is  recommended  to  compost  with  peat.  Let  us 
inquire  whether  carbonate  of  lime  can  really  exert  any 
noticeable  influence  in  improving  the  fertilizing  quality  of 
peat. 

In  the  case  of  vitriol  peats,  carbonate  of  lime  is  the 
cheapest  and  most  appropriate  means  of  destroying  the 
noxious  sulphate  of  protoxide  of  iron,  and  correcting 
their  deleterious  quality.  When  carbonate  of  lime  is 
brought  in  contact  with  sulphate  of  protoxide  of  iron,  the 
two  bodies  mutually  decompose,  with  formation  of  sul 
phate  of  lime  (gypsum)  and  carbonate  of  protoxide  of 
iron.  The  latter  substance  absorbs  oxygen  from  the  air 
with  the  utmost  avidity,  and  passes  into  the  peroxide  of 
iron, -which  is  entirely  inert. 

The  admixture  of  any  earthy  matter  with  peat,  will  fa 
cilitate  its  decomposition,  and  make  it  more  active  chemi 
cally,  in  so  far  as  it  promotes  the  separation  of  the  parti 
cles  of  the  peat  from  each  other,  and  the  consequent  access 
of  air.  This  benefit  mny  well  amount  to  something  when 
we  add  to  peat  one-fifth  of  its  bulk  of  marl  or  leached 
ashes,  but  the  question  comes  up  :  Do  these  insoluble  mild 
alkalies  exert  any  direct  action  ?  Would  not  as  much  soil 
of  any  kind  be  equally  efficacious,  by  promoting  to  an 
equal  degree  the  contact  of  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere  ? 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  carbonate  of  lime  may 
exert  a  chemical  action  on  the  organic  matters  of  peat. 
Carbonate  of  lime,  itself,  in  the  forms  we  have  mentioned, 
is  commonly  called  insoluble  in  water.  It  is,  however, 
soluble  to  a  very  slight  extent ;  it  dissolves,  namely,  in 
about  30,000  times  its  weight  of  pure  water.  It  is  nearly 
thirty  times  more  soluble  in  water  saturated  with  carbonic 
acid ;  and  this  solution  has  distinct  alkaline  characters. 
Since  the  water  contained  in  a  heap  of  peat  must  be  con 
siderably  impregnated  with  carbonic  acid,  it  follows  that 


EMPLOYMENT    IX    AGRICULTURE.  77 

when  carbonate  of  lime  is  present,  the  latter  must  form  a 
solution,  very  dilute  indeed,  but  still  capable  of  some  di 
rect  effect  on  the  organic  matters  of  the  peat,  when  it  acts 
through  a  long  space  of  time.  Again,  it  is  possible  that 
the  solution  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  carbonic  acid,  may 
act  to  liberate  some  ammonia  from  the  soluble  portions 
of  the  peat,  and  this  ammonia  may  react  on  the  remainder 
of  the  peat  to  produce  the  same  effects  as  it  does  in  the 
case  of  a  compost  made  with  animal  matters. 

Whether  the  effects  thus  theoretically  possible,  amount 
to  anything  practically  important,  is  a  question  of  great 
interest.  It  often  happens  that  opinions  entertained 
by  practical  men,  not  only  by  farmers,  but  by  mechanics 
and  artisans  as  well,  are  founded  on  so  untrustworthy  a 
basis,  are  supported  by  trials  so  destitute  of  precision, 
that  their  accuracy  may  well  be  doubted,  and  from  all 
the  accounts  I  have  met  with,  it  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  well  established,  practically,  that  composts  made  with 
carbonate  of  lime,  are  better  than  the  peat  and  carbonate 
used  separately. 

Carbonate  of  lime  (leached  ashes,  shell  marl,  etc.),  is 
very  wrell  to  use  in  conjunction  with  peat,  to  furnish  a 
substance  or  substances  needful  to  the  growth  of  plants, 
and  supply  the  deficiencies  of  peat  as  regards  composi 
tion.  Although  in  the  agricultural  papers,  numerous  ac 
counts  of  the  efficacy  of  such  mixtures  are  given,  we  do 
not  learn  from  them  whether  these  bodies  exert  any  such 
good  effect  upon  the  peat  itself,  as  to  warrant  the  trouble 
of  making  a  compost. 

4.— Experiments  by  the  author  on  the  effect  of  alkaline 
bodies  in  developing  the  fertilizing  power  of  Peat. 

During  the  summer  of  1862,  the  author  undertook  a 
series  of  experiments  with  a  view  of  ascertaining  the  effect 
of  various  composting  materials  upon  peat. 


78  PEAT   AND   ITS   USES. 

Two  bushels  of  peat  were  obtained  from  a  heap  that 
had  been  weathering  for  some  time  on  the  "  Beaver 
Meadow,"  near  New  Haven.  This  was  thoroughly  air- 
dried,  then  crushed  by  the  hand,  and  finally  rubbed  through 
a  moderately  fine  sieve.  In  this  way,  the  peat  was  brought 
to  a  perfectly  homogeneous  condition. 

Twelve-quart  flower-pots,  new  from  the  warehouse, 
were  filled  as  described  below ;  the  trials  being  made  in 
duplicate  :  — 

Pots  1  and  2  contained  each  270  grammes  of  peat. 

Pots  3  and  4  contained  each  270  grammes  of  peat, 
mixed  with  10  grammes  of  ashes  of  young  grass. 

Pots  5  and  6  contained  each  270  grammes  of  peat, 
10  grammes  of  ashes,  and  10  grammes  of  carbonate 
of  lime. 

Pots  7  and  8  contained  each  270  grammes  of  peat,  10 
grammes  of  ashes,  and  10  grammes  of  slaked  (hydrate 
of)  lime. 

Pots  9  and  10  contained  each  270  grammas  of  peat,  10 
gramme <  of  ashes,  and  5  grammes  of  lime,  slaked  with 
strong  solution  of  common  salt. 

Pots  11  and  12  contained  each  270  grammes  of  peat, 
10  grammes  of  ashes,  and  3  grammes  of  Peruvian  guano. 

In  each  case  the  materials  were  thoroughly  mixed  to 
gether,  and  so  much  water  was  cautiously  added  as 
served  to  wet  them  thoroughly.  Five  kernels  of  dwarf 
(pop)  corn  were  planted  in  each  pot,  the  weight  of  each 
planting  being  carefully  ascertained. 

The  pots  were  disposed  in  a  glazed  case  within  a  cold 
grapery,*  and  were  watered  when  needful  with  pure  wa 
ter.  The  seeds  sprouted  duly,  and  developed  into 
healthy  plants.  The  plants  served  thus  as  tests  of  the 

*  To  the  kindness  of  Joseph  Sheffield,  Esq.,  of  New  Haven,  the  author  is 
indebted  for  facilities  in  carrying  on  these  experiments. 


EMPLOYMENT   IX   AGRICULTURE. 


79 


chemical  effect  of  carbonate  of  lime,  of  slaked  lime,  and 
of  salt  and  lime  mixture,  on  the  peat.  The  guano  pots 
enabled  making  a  comparison  with  a  well-known  fertilizer. 
The  plants  were  allowed  to  grow  until  those  best  devel 
oped,  enlarged  above,  not  at  the  expense  of  the  peat,  etc., 
but  of  their  own  lower  leaves,  as  shown  by  the  wither 
ing  of  the  latter.  They  were  then  cut,  and,  after  dry 
ing  in  the  air,  were  weighed  with  the  subjoined  results. 

VEGETATION  EXPERIMENTS  IN  PEAT   COMPOSTS. 


Weight 

ii 

if! 

Vos.                  Medium  of  Growth. 

of  crops  in 

g'^O'iS 

v2^! 

grammes. 

Nii 

^'s  ^^ 

»^9« 

^s§i 

Peat  alone.                                            

1.61  >       .  On 

1 

%% 

Peat,  and  ashes  of  grass,                    

14.19  )  oo  .  , 
18.251)  tSM* 

8 

Peat,  ashes,  and  carbonate  of  lime,  

18.19  )  OQ  u 

9 

25  % 

1  Peat,  ashes,  and  slaked  lime, 

21.49  {  ,9  oo 
20.73     &3& 

10 

28M 

|  Peat,  ashes,  slaked  lime,  and  salt,     

23.08  )  4r  42 
23.34  J 

11 

30^ 

j  Peat,  ashes,  and  Peruvian  Guano,     

20.79  )  KO  70 
26.99  [  M>78 

13 

35^ 

Let  us  now  examine  the  above  results.  The  experi 
ments  1  and  2,  demonstrate  that  the  peat  itself  is  deficient 
in  something  needful  to  the-  plant.  In  both  pots,  but  4.2 
grammes  of  crop  were  produced,  a  quantity  two  and  a 
half  times  greater  than  that  of  the  seeds,  which  weighed 
1.59  grammes.  The  plants  were  pale  in  color,  slender, 
and  reached  a  height  of  but  about  six  inches. 

Nos.  3  and  4  make  evident  what  are  some  of  the  deficien 
cies  of  the  peat.  A  supply  of  mineral  matters,  such  as  are 
contained  in  all  plants,  being  made  by  the  addition  of 
ashes,  consisting  chiefly  of  phosphates,  carbonates  and 
sulphates  of  lime,  magnesia  and  potash,  a  crop  is  realized 
nearly  eight  times  greater  than  in  the  previous  cases ; 
the  yield  being  32.44  grammes,  or  2(H  times  the  weight  of 


80  PEAT   AXD   ITS    USES. 

the  seed.  The  quantity  of  ashes  added,  viz. :  —  10  gram 
mes,  was  capable  of  supplying  every  mineral  element, 
greatly  in  excess  of  the  \vants  of  any  crop  that  could  be 
grown  in  a  quart  of  soil.  The  plants  in  pots  3  and  4 
were  much  stouter  than  those  in  1  and  2,  and  had  a  healthy 
color. 

The  experiments  5  and  6  appear  to  demonstrate  that 
carbonate  of  lime  considerably  aided  in  converting  the 
peat  itself  into  plant-food.  The  ashes  alone  contained 
enough  carbonate  of  lime  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  plant 
in  respect  to  that  substance.  More  carbonate  of  lime 
could  only  operate  by  acting  on  the  organic  matters  of  the 
peat.  The  amount  of  the  crop  is  raised  by  the  effect  of 
carbonate  of  lime  from  32.44  to  38.44  grammes,  or  from 
20£  to  25^  times  that  of  the  seed. 

Experiments  7  and  8  show,  that  slaked  lime  has  more 
effect  than  the  carbonate,  as  we  should  anticipate.  Its  in 
fluence  does  not,  however,  exceed  that  of  the  carbonate 
very  greatly,  the  yield  rising  from  88.44  to  42.22  gram 
mes,  or  from  251  to  28|  times  the  weight  of  the  seed.  In 
fact,  quicklime  can  only  act  as  such  for  a  very  short  space 
of  time,  since  it  rapidly  combines  with  the  carbonic  acid, 
which  is  supplied  abundantly  by  the  peat.  In  experi 
ments  7  and  8,  a  good  share  of  the  influence  exerted  must 
therefore  be  actually  ascribed  to  the  carbonate,  rather 
than  to  the  quicklime  itself. 

In  experiments  9  and  10,  we  have  proof  that  the  "lime 
and  salt  mixture"  has  a  greater  efficacy  than  lime  alone, 
the  crop  being  increased  thereby  from  42.-22  to  46.42 
grammes,  or  from  28 \  to  30i  times  that  of  the  seed. 

Finally,  we  see  from  experiments  11  and  12  that  in  all 
the  foregoing  cases  it  was  a  limited  supply  of  nitrogen 
that  limited  the  crop ;  for,  on  adding  Peruvian  guano, 
which  could  only  act  by  this  element  (its  other  ingredients, 


EMPLOYMENT    IX    AGRICULTURE.  81 

phosphates  of  lime  and  potash,  being  abundantly  supplied 
in  the  ashes),  the  yield  was  carried  up  to  53.78  grammes, 
or  35^  times  the  weight  of  the  seed,  and  13  times  the 
weight  of  the  crop  obtained  from  the  unmixed  peat. 

5. — The  Examination  of  Peat  (muck  and  marsh-mud) 
with  reference  to  its  Agricultural  Value. 

Since,  as  wre  are  forced  to  conclude,  the  variations  in 
the  composition  of  peat  stand  in  no  recognizable  relations 
to  differences  of  appearance,  it  is  only  possible  to  ascertain 
the  value  of  any  given  specimen  by  actual  trial  or  by 
chemical  investigation. 

The  method  by  practical  trial  is  usually  the  cheaper  and 
more  satisfactory  of  the  two,  though  a  half  year  or  more 
is  needful  to  gain  the  desired  information. 

It  is  sufficient  to  apply  to  small  measured  plots  of 
ground,  each  say  two  rods  square,  known  quantities  of 
the  fresh,  the  weathered,  and  the  composted  peat  in  order, 
by  comparison  of  the  growth  and  weight  of  the  crop,  to 
decide  the  question  of  their  value. 

Peat  and  its  composts  are  usually  applied  at  rates  rang 
ing  from  20  to  40  wagon  or  cart  loads  per  acre.  There 
being  160  square  rods  in  the  acre,  the  quantity  proper  to* 
a  plot  of  two  rods  square  (==  four  square  rods,)  would  be 
one  half  to  one  load. 

The  composts  with  stable  manure  and  lime,  or  salt  and 
lime  mixture,  are  those  which,  in  general,  it  would  be  best 
to  experiment  with.  From  the  effects  of  the  stable  ma 
nure  compost,  could  be  inferred  with  safety  the  value  of 
any  compost,  of  which  animal  manure  is  an  essential  in 
gredient. 

One  great  advantage  of  the  practical  trial  on  the  small 
scale  is,  that  the  adaptation  of  the  peat  or  of  the  compost 
to  the  peculiarities  of  the  soil,  is  decided  beyond  a  ques 
tion. 

4* 


82  PEAT   AND   ITS   USES. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  results  of 
experiments  can  only  be  relied  upon,  when  the  plots  are 
accurately  measured,  when  the  peat,  etc.,  are  applied  in 
known  quantities,  and  when  the  crops  are  separately  har 
vested  and  carefully  weighed. 

If  experiments  are  made  upon  grass  or  clover,  the 
gravest  errors  may  arise  by  drawing  conclusions  from  the 
appearance  of  the  standing  crop.  Experience  has  shown 
that  two  clover  crops,  gathered  from  contiguous  plots 
differently  manured,  may  strikingly  differ  in  appearance, 
but  yield  the  same  amounts  of  hay. 

The  chemical  examination  of  a  peat  may  serve  to  in 
form  us,  without  loss  of  time,  upon  a  number  of  import 
ant  points. 

To  test  a  peat  for  soluble  iron  salts  which  might  render 
it  deleterious,  we  soak  and  agitate  a  handful  for  some 
hours,  with  four  or  five  times  its  bulk  of  warm  soft  water. 
From  a  good  fresh-water  peat  we  obtain,  by  this  treat 
ment,  a  yellow  liquid,  more  or  less  deep  in  tint,  the  taste 
of  which  is  very  slight  and  scarcely  definable. 

From  a  vitriol  peat  we  get  a  dark-brown  or  black  solu 
tion,  which  has  ji  bit",  .  astringent,  matallic  or  inky  taste, 
,  like  that  of  copperas. 

Salt  peat  will  yield  a  solution  having  the  taste  of  salt- 
brine,  unless  it  contains  iron,  when  the  taste  of  the  latter 
will  prevail. 

On  evaporating  the  water-solution  to  dryness  and  heat 
ing  strongly  in  a  China  cup,  a  vitriol  peat  gives  off  white 
choking  fumes  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  there  remains,  after 
burning,  brown-red  oxide  of  iron  in  the  dish. 

The  above  testings  are  easily  conducted  by  any  one, 
with  the  ordinary  conveniences  of  the  kitchen. 

Those  that  follow,  require,  for  the  most  part,  the  chemi 
cal  laboratory,  and  the  skill  of  the  practised  chemist,  for 
satisfactory  execution. 


EMPLOYMENT   IX   AGRICULTURE.  83 

Besides  testing  for  soluble  iron  compounds,  as  already 
indicated,  the  points  to  be  regarded  in  the  chemical  exam 
ination,  are :  — 

1st.  Water  or  moisture. — This  must  be  estimated,  be 
cause  it  is  so  variable,  and  a  knowledge  of  its  quantity  is 
needful,  if  we  will  compare  together  different  samples. 
A  weighed  amount  of  the  peat  is  dried  for  this  purpose 
at  212°  F.,  as  long  as  it  suffers  loss. 

2d.  The  proportions  of  organic  matter  and  ash  are  as 
certained  by  carefully  burning  a  weighed  sample  of  the 
peat.  By  this  trial  we  distinguish  between  peat  with  2  to 
10  per  cent,  of  ash  and  peaty  soil,  or  mud,  containing  but 
a  few  per  cent,  of  organic  matter. 

This  experiment  may  be  made  in  a  rough  way,  but  with 
sufficient  accuracy  for  common  purposes,  by  burning  a 
few  Ibs.  or  ozs.  of  peat  upon  a  piece  of  sheet  iron,  or  in  a 
sauce  pan,  and  noting  the  loss,  which  includes  both  water 
and  organic  matter. 

3d.  As  further  regards  the  organic  matters,  we  ascer 
tain  the  extent  to  which  the  peaty  decomposition  has  taken 
place  by  boiling  with  dilute  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda. 
This  solvent  separates  the  humic  and  ulmic  acids  from  the 
undecomposed  vegetable  fibers. 

For  practical  purposes  this  treatment  with  carbonate  of 
soda  may  be  dispensed  with,  since  the  amount  of  unde 
composed  fiber  is  gathered  with  sufficient  accuracy  from 
careful  inspection  of  the  peat. 

Special  examination  of  the  organic  acids  is  of  no  con 
sequence  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge. 

4th.  The  proportion  of  nitrogen  is  of  the  first  impor 
tance  to  be  ascertained.  In  examinations  of  30  samples  of 
peat,  I  have  found  the  content  of  nitrogen  to  range  from 
0.4  to  2.9  per  cent.,  the  richest  containing  seven  times  as 
much  as  the  poorest.  It  is  practically  a  matter  of  great 


84  PEAT   AND   ITS  USES. 

moment  whether,  for  example,  a  Peruvian  guano  contains 
16  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  as  it  should,  or  but  one-seventh 
that  amount,  as  it  may  when  grossly  adulterated.  In  the 
same  sense,  it  is  important  before  making  a  heavy  outlay 
in  excavating  and  composting  pent,  to  know  whether  (as 
regards  nitrogen)  it  belongs  to  the  poorer  or  richer  sorts. 
This  can  only  be  done  by  the  complicated  methods  known 
to  the  chemist. 

5th.  The  estimation  of  ammonia  (actual  or  ready-form 
ed,)  is  a  matter  of  scientific  interest,  but  subordinate  in  a 
practical  point  of  view. 

6th.  Nitric  acid  and  nitrates  can  scarcely  exist  in  peat 
except  where  it  is  well  exposed  to  the  air,  in  a  merely  moist 
but  not  wet  state.  Their  estimation  in  composts  is  of  great 
interest,  though  troublesome  to  execute. 

7th.  As  regards  the  ash,  its  red  color  indicates  iron. 
Pouring  hydrochloric  acid  upon  it,  causes  effervescence  in 
the  presence  of  carbonate  of  lime.  This  compound,  in 
most  cases,  has  been  formed  in  the  burning,  from  humate 
and  other  organic  salts  of  lime.  Sand)  or  clay,  being  in 
soluble  in  the  acid,  remains,  and  may  be  readily  estimated. 

Phosphoric  acid  and  alkalies,  especially  potash,  are, 
next  to  lime,  the  important  ingredients  of  the  ash.  Mag 
nesia  and  sulphuric  acid,  rank  next  in  value.  Their  esti 
mation  requires  a  number  of  tedious  operations,  and  can 
scarcely  be  required  for  practical  purposes,  until  more 
ready  methods  of  analyses  shall  have  been  discovered. 

8th.  The  quantity  of  matters  soluble  in  water  has  con 
siderable  interest,  but  is  not  ordinarily  requisite  to  be  as 
certained. 

6. —  Composition  of  Connecticut  Peats. 
In  the  years  1857  and  1858,  the  author  was  charged  by 
the    Connecticut   State   Agricultural    Society*    with  the 

*  At  the  instigation  of  Henry  A  Dyer,  Esq.,  at  that  time  the  Society's  Corres 
ponding  Secretary. 


EMPLOYMENT   IX    AGRICULTURE.  85 

chemical  investigation  of  33  samples  of  peat  and  swamp 
muck,  sent  to  him  in  compliance  with  official  request. 

In  the  foregoing  pages,  the  facts  revealed  by  the  labori 
ous  analyses  executed  on  these  samples,  have  been  for  the 
most  part  communicated,  together  with  many  valuable 
practical  results  derived  from  the  experience  of  the  gen 
tlemen  who  sent  in  the  specimens.  The  analytical  data 
themselves  appear  to  me  to  be  worthy  of  printing  again, 
for  the  information  of  those  who  may  hereafter  make  in 
vestigations  in  the  same  direction. — See  Tables  I,  II,  and 
III,  p.p.  89,  90,  and  91. 

The  specimens  came  in  all  stages  of  dryness.  Some 
were  freshly  dug  and  wet,  others  had  suffered  long  ex 
posure,  so  that  they  were  air-dry  ;  some  that  were  sent  in 
the  moist  state,  became  dry  before  being  subjected  to 
examination  ;  others  were  prepared  for  analysis  while  still 
moist. 

A  sufficient  quantity  of  each  specimen  was  carefully 
pulverized,  intermixed,  and  put  into  a  stoppered  bottle  and 
thus  preserved  for  experiment. 

The  analyses  were  begun  in  the  winter  of  1857  by  my 
assistant,  Edward  II.  Twining,  Esq.  The  samples  1  to  17 
of  the  subjoined  tables  were  then  analyzed.  In  the  fol 
lowing  year  the  work  was  continued  on  the  remaining 
specimens  18 — 33  by  Dr.  Robert  A.  Fisher.  The  method 
of  analysis  was  the  same  in  both  cases,  except  in  two 
particulars. 

In  the  earlier  analyses,  1  to  17  inclusive,  the  treatment 
with  carbonate  of  soda  was  not  carried  far  enough  to 
dissolve  the  whole  of  the  soluble  organic  acids.  It  was 
merely  attempted  to  make  comparative  determinations 
by  treating  all  alike  for  the  same  time,  and  with  the  same 
quantity  of  alkali.  I  have  little  doubt  that  in  some  cases 
not  more  than  one-half  of  the  portion  really  soluble  in 
carbonate  of  soda  is  given  as  such.  In  the  later  analyses, 


86  PEAT   AXD    ITS    USES. 

18  to  33,  however,  the  treatment  was  continued  until  com 
plete  separation  of  the  soluble  organic  acids  was  effected. 

By  acting  on  a  peat  for  a  long  time  with  a  hot  solution 
of  carbonate  of  soda,  there  is  taken  up  not  merely  a  quan 
tity  of  organic  .matter,  but  inorganic  matters  likewise 
enter  solution.  Silica,  oxyd  of  iron  and  alumina  are  thus 
dissolved.  In  this  process  too,  sulphate  of  lime  is  con 
verted  into  carbonate  of  lime. 

The  total  amount  of  these  soluble  inorganic  matters 
has  been  determined  with  approximate  accuracy  in  anal 
yses  18  to  33. 

In  the  analyses  1  to  IV  the  collective  amount  of  matters 
soluble  in  water  was  determined.  In  the  later  analyses 
the  proportions  of  organic  and  inorganic  matters  in  the 
water-solution  were  separately  estimated. 

The  process  of  analysis  as  elaborated  and  employed  by 
Dr.  Fisher  and  the  author,  is  as  follows : 

I.  To  prepare  a  sample  for  analysis,  half  a  pound,  more 
or  less,  of  the  substance  is  pulverized  and  passed  through 
a  wire  sieve  of  24  meshes  to  the  inch.     It  is  then  thor 
oughly  mixed  and  bottled. 

II.  2  grammes  of  the  above  are  dried  (in  tared  watch- 
glasses)  at  the  temperature  of  212  degrees,  until  they  no 
longer  decrease  in  weight.     The  loss  sustained  represents 
the  amount  of  water,   (according  to  MARSILLY,  Annales 
des  Mines,  1857,  XII.,  404,  peat  loses  carbon  if  dried  at  a 
temperature  higher  than  212  degrees.) 

III.  The  capsule  containing  the  residue  from  I.  is  slow 
ly  heated  to  incipient  redness,  and  maintained    at    that 
temperature  until  the  organic  matter  is  entirely  consumed. 
The  loss  gives  the  total  amount  of  organic,  the  residue 
the  total  amount  of  inorganic  matter. 

NOTE. — In  peats  containing  sulphate  of  the  protoxide 
of  iron,  the  loss  that  occurs  during  ignition  is  partly  due 


EMPLOYMENT    IN    AGRICULTURE.  87 

to  the  escape  of  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  set  free  by  the 
decomposition  of  the  above  mentioned  salt  of  iron.  But 
the  quantity  is  usually  so  small  in  comparison  with  the 
organic  matter,  that  it  may  be  disregarded.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  combined  water  in  the  clay  that  is 
mixed  with  some  mucks,  which  is  only  expelled  at  a  high 
temperature. 

IV.  3  grammes  of  the  sample  are   digested  for  half  an 
hour,  with  200  cubic  centimeters  (66.6  times  their  weight,) 
of  boiling  water,  then  removed  from  the  sand  bath,  and 
at  the  end  of   twenty-four  hours,  the  clear  liquid  is  de 
canted.     This  operation  is  twice  repeated  upon  the  res 
idue;  the   three  solutions  are  mixed,  filtered,  concentrat 
ed,  and  finally  evaporated  to  dryness  (in  a  tared  platinum 
capsule,)  over  a  water  bath.     The  residue,  which  must  be 
dried  at  212  degrees,  until  it  ceases  to  lose  weight,  gives 
the  total  amount  soluble    in   water.     The  dried  residue 
is  then   heated    to  low  redness,  and   maintained  at    that 
temperature  until  the  organic  matter  is  burned  off.     The 
loss  represents  the  amount  of  organic  matter  soluble  in 
water,  the   ash  gives   the   quantity  of  soluble    inorganic 
matter. 

V.  1  gramme  is  digeste  1   for  two  hours,  at  a  temper 
ature  just  below  the  boiling  point,  with   100  cubic  centi 
meters  of  a  solution  containing  5  per  cent,  of  crystallized 
carbonate  of  soda.     It  is  then  removed   from   the   sand 
bath  and  allowed  to  settle.     When  the  supernatant  liquid 
has  become  perfectly  transparent,  it  is  carefully  decanted. 
This  operation  is  repeated  until  all  the   organic  matter 
soluble  in  this  menstruum  is  removed ;  which  is  accom 
plished  as  soon  as  the  carbonate  of  soda  solution  comes 
off  colorless.     The  residue,  which  is  to  be  washed  with 
boiling  water  until  the    washings  no   longer  affect  test 
papers,  is  thrown  upon  a  tared  filter,  and  dried  at  212  de 
grees.     It  is  the  total  amount  of  organic  and  inorganic 


88  PEAT  AND   ITS    USES. 

matter  insoluble  in  carbonate  of  soda.  The  loss  that  it 
suffers  upon  ignition,  indicates  the  amount  of  organic 
matter,  the  ash  gives  the  inorganic  matter. 

NOTE. — The  time  required  to  insure  perfect  settling 
after  digesting  with  carbonate  of  soda  solution,  varies, 
with  different  peats,  from  24  hours  to  several  days.  With 
proper  care,  the  results  obtained  are  very  satisfactory. 
Two  analyses  of  No.  6,  executed  at  different  times,  gave 
total  insoluble  in  carbonate  of  soda — 1st  analysis  23.20 
per  cent. ;  2d  analysis  23.45  per  cent.  These  residues 
yielded  respectively  14.30  and  14.15  per  cent,  of  ash. 

VI.  The  quantity  of  organic  matter  insoluble  in  water 
but  soluble  in  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda,  is  ascer 
tained  by   deducting  the  joint  weight  of  the  amounts  so 
luble  in  water,  and  insoluble  in  carbonate  of  soda,  from 
the  total   amount  of  organic  matter  present.     The   inor 
ganic  matter  insoluble  in  water,  but   soluble  in  carbon 
ate  of  soda,  is  determined  by  deducting  the  joint  weight 
of  the  amounts  of  inorganic  matter  soluble  in  water,  and  in 
soluble  in  carbonate  of  soda,  from  the  total  inorganic  matter. 

VII.  The  amount  of  nitrogen  is  estimated  by  the  com 
bustion  of  1  gramme  with  soda-lime  in  an  iron   tube,  col 
lection  of  the  ammonia  in  a  standard  solution  of  sulphuric 
acid,  and  determination   of  the  residual  free  acid  by  an 
equivalent  solution  of  caustic  potash  and  a  few  drops  of 
tincture  of  cochineal  as  an  indicator. 

The  results  of  the  analyses  are  given  in  the  following 
Tables.  Table  I.  gives  the  direct  results  of  analysis.  In 
Table  II.  the  analyses  are  calculated  on  dry  matter,  and 
the  nitrogen  upon  the  organic  matters.  Table  III.  gives 
a  condensed  statement  of  the  external  characters  and  agri 
cultural  value*  of  the  samples  in  their  different  localities, 
and  the  names  of  the  parties  supplying  them. 

*  Derived  from  the  communications  published  in  the  author's  Report.    Trans. 
Conn.  State  Ag.  Soc.  18">8  pp.  101—153. 


EMPLOYMENT   IX    AGRICULTURE. 


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PART    III. 

ON  PEAT  AS  FUEL. 


1. — Kinds  of  peat  that  make  the  best  fuel. 

The  value  of  peat  for  fuel  varies  greatly,  like  its  other 
qualities.  Only  those  kinds  which  can  be  cut  out  in  the 
shape  of  coherent  blocks,  or  which  admit  of  being  arti 
ficially  formed  into  firm  masses,  are  of  use  in  ordinary 
stoves  and  furnaces.  The  powdery  or  friable  surface 
peat,  which  has  been  disintegrated  by  frost  and  exposure, 
is  ordinarily  useless  as  fuel,  unless  it  be  rendered  coherent 
by  some  mode  of  preparation.  Unripe  peat  which  con 
tains  much  undecomposed  moss  or  grass  roots,  which  is 
therefore  very  light  and  porous,  is  in  general  too  bulky  to 
make  an  effective  heating  material  before  subjection  to 
mechanical  treatment. 

The  best  peat  for  burning,  is  that  which  is  most  free 
from  visible  fiber  or  undecomposed  vegetable  matters, 
which  has  therefore  a  homogeneous  brown  or  black  as 
pect,  and  which  is  likewise  free  from  admixture  of  earthy 


PEAT   AS   FUEL.  93 

substances  in  the  form  of  sand  or  clay.  Such  peat  is  unc 
tuous  when  moist,  shrinks  greatly  on  drying,  and  forms 
hard  and  heavy  masses  when  dry.  It  is  usually  found 
at  a  considerable  depth,  where  it  has  been  subjected  to 
pressure,  and  then  has  such  consistence  as  to  admit  of 
cutting  out  in  blocks  ;  or  it  may  exist  as  a  black  mud  or 
paste  at  the  bottom  of  bogs  and  sluices. 

The  value  of  peat  as  fuel  stands  in  direct  ratio  to  its 
content  of  carbon.  We  haA^e  seen  that  this  ranges  from 
51  to  63  per  cent,  of  the  organic  matter ',  and  the  in 
crease  of  carbon  is  related  to  its  ripeness  and  density. 
The  poorest,  youngest  peat,  has  the  same  proportion  of 
carbon  as  exists  in  wood.  It  does  not,  however,  follow 
that  its  heating  power  is  the  same.  The  various  kinds  of 
wood  have  essentially  the  same  proportion  of  carbon,  but 
their  heating  power  is  very  different.  The  close  textured 
woods — those  which  weigh  the  most  per  cord — make  the 
bjst  fuel  for  most  purposes.  We  know  that  a  cord  of 
hickory  will  produce  twice  as  much  heat  as  a  cord  of 
bass-wood.  Peat,  though  having  the  same  or  a  greater 
proportion  of  carbon,  is  generally  inferior  to  wood  on  ac 
count  of  its  occupying  a  greater  bulk  for  a  given  weight, 
a  necessary  result  of  its  porosity.  The  best  qualities  of 
peat,  or  poor  kinds  artificially  condensed,  may,  on  the 
other  hand,  equal  or  exceed  wood  in  heating  power,  bulk 
for  bulk.  One  reason  that  peat  is,  in  general,  inferior  to 
wood  in  heating  effect,  lies  in  its  greater  content  of  in 
combustible  ash.  Wood  has  but  0.5  to  1.5  per  cent,  of 
mineral  matters,  while  peat  contains  usually  5  to  10  per 
cent.,  and  often  more.  The  oldest,  ripest  peats  are  those 
which  contain  the  most  carbon,  and  have  at  the  same  time 
the  greatest  compactness.  From  these  two  circumstances 
they  make  the  best  fuel. 

It  thus  appears  that  peat  which  is  light,  loose  in  struc 
ture,  and  much  mixed  with  clay  or  sand,  is  a  poor  or  very 


94  PEAT    AXD    ITS    USES. 

poor  article  for  producing  heat :  while  a  dense  pure  peat 
is  very  good. 

A  great  drawback  to  the  usefulness  of  most  kinds  of 
peat-fuel,  lies  in  their  great  friability.  This  property 
renders  them  unable  to  endure  transportation.  The  blocks 
of  peat  which  are  commonly  used  in  most  parts  of  Ger 
many  as  fuel,  break  and  crumble  in  handling,  so  that  they 
cannot  be  carried  far  without  great  waste.  Besides,  when 
put  into  a  stove,  there  can  only  go  on  a  slow  smouldering 
combustion  as  would  happen  in  cut  tobacco  or  saw-dust. 
A  free-burning  fuel  must  exist  in  compact  lumps  or  blocks, 
which  so  retain  their  form  and  solidity,  as  to  admit  of  a 
rapid  draught  of  air  through  the  burning  mass. 

The  bulkiness  of  ordinary  peat  fuel,  as  compared  with 
hard  wood,  and  especially  with  coal,  likewise  renders 
transportation  costly,  especially  by  water,  where  freights 
are  charged  by  bulk  and  not  by  weight,  and  renders  stor 
age  an  item  of  great  expense. 

The  chief  value  of  that  peat  fuel,  which  is  simply  cut 
from  the  bog,  and  dried  without  artificial  condensation, 
must  be  for  the  domestic  use  of  the  farmer  or  villager  who 
owns  a  supply  of  it  not  far  from  his  dwelling,  and  can 
employ  his  own  time  in  getting  it  out.  Though  worth  per 
haps  much  less  cord  for  cord  when  dry  than  hard  wood,  it 
may  be  cheaper  for  home  consumption  than  fuel  brought 
from  a  distance. 

Various  processes  have  been  devised  for  preparing  peat, 
with  a  view  to  bringing  it  into  a  condition  of  density  and 
toughness,  sufficient  to  obviate  its  usual  faults,  and  make 
it  compare  with  wood  or  even  with  coal  in  heating 
power. 

The  efforts  in  this  direction  have  met  with  abundant 
success  as  regards  producing  a  good  fuel.  In  many  cases, 
however,  the  cost  of  preparation  has  been  too  great  to 
warrant  the  general  adoption  of  these  processes.  We 


PEAT   AS    FUEL.  95 

shall  recur  to  this  subject  on  a  subsequent  page,  and  give 
an  account  of  the  methods  that  have  been  proposed  or 
employed  for  the  manufacture  of  condensed  peat  fuel. 

2.—  Density  of  Peat. 

The  apparent*  specific  gravity  of  peat  in  the  air-dry 
state,  ranges  from  0.11  to  1.03.  In  other  words,  a  full 
cubic  foot  weighs  from  one-tenth  as  much  as,  to  slightly 
more  than  a  cubic  foot  of  water,  =  62.]-  Ibs.  Peat,  which 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  but  0.25,  may  be  and  is  employed 
as  fuel.  A  full  cubic  foot  of  it  will  weigh  about  16  Ibs. 
In  Germany,  the  cubic  foot  of  "  good  ordinary  peat '?  in 
blocks,f  ranges  from  15  to  25  Ibs.  in  weight,  and  is  em 
ployed  for  domestic  purposes.  The  heavier  peat,  weigh 
ing  30  or  more  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot  in  blocks,  is  used  for 
manufacturing  and  metallurgical  purposes,  and  for  firing 
locomotives. 

Karmarsch  has  carefully  investigated  more  than  100 
peats  belonging  to  the  kingdom  of  Hanover,  with  refer 
ence  to  their  heating  effect.  He  classifies  them  as  fol 
lows  : — 

A.  Turfy  peat,  (Rasentorf^  consisting  of  slightly  de 
composed  mosses  and  other  peat-producing  plants,  having 
p.  yellow  or  yellowish-brown  color,  very  soft,  spongy  and 

*  The  apparent  specific  gravity  here  means  the  weight  of  the  mass,  -the  air- 
filled  cavities  and  pores  included  —  as  compared  with  an  equal  bulk  of  water. 
The  real  specific  gravity  of  the  peat  itself  is  always  greater  than  that  of  water, 
arid  all  kinds  of  peat  will  sink  in  water  when  they  soak  long  enough,  or  are 
otherwise  treated  so  that  all  air  is  removed. 

t  The  "full"  cubic  foot  implies  a  cubic  foot  having  no  cavities  or  waste 
space,  such  as  exist  in  a  pile,  made  up  of  numerous  blocks.  If  a  number  of 
peat  blocks  be  put  into  a  box  and  shaken  together,  the  empty  space  between  the 
more  or  less  irregular  blocks,  may  amount  to  4ti  per  cent,  of  the  whole  ;  and 
when  closely  packed,  the  cavities  amount  to  30  per  cent.,  according  to  the  ob 
servations  of  Wasserzieher.  (Dinner's  Journal.  Oct.,  18^4,  p.  118.)  Some  con 
fusion  exists  in  the  statements  of  writers  in  regard  to  this  matter,  and  want  of 
attention  to  it,  has  led  to  grave  errors  in  estimating  the  weight  of  fuel. 


96  PEAT   AND    ITS   USES. 

elastic,  sp.  gr.  0.11  to  0.26,  the  full  English  cubic  foot 
weighing  from  7  to  16  Ibs. 

B.  Fibrous  peat,  unripe  peat,  which  is  brown  or  black 
in  color,  less  elastic  than  turfy  peat,  the  fibres  either  of 
moss,  grass,  roots,  leaves,  or  wood,  distinguishable  by  the 
eye,  but  brittle,  and  easily  broken;  sp.  gr.  0.24  to  0.67, 
the  weight  of  a  full  cubic  foot  being  from  15  to  42  Ibs. 

C.  Earthy  peat. — Nearly  or  altogether  destitute   of 
fibrous  structure,  drying  to  earth-like  masses  which  break 
with  more  or  less  difficulty,  giving  lustreless  surfaces  of 
fracture ;  sp.  gr.  0.41  to  0.90,  the  full  cubic  foot  weighing, 
accordingly,  from  25  to  56  Ibs. 

D.  Pitchy  peat,  (Pechtorf,}  dense ;   when  dry,  hard ; 
often  resisting  the  blows  of  a  hammer,  breaking  with  a 
smooth,  sometimes   lustrous   fracture,   into    sharp-angled 
pieces.     Sp.  gr.  0.62  to  1.03,  the  full  cubic  foot  weighing 
from  38  to  55  Ibs. 

In  Kane  and  Sullivan's  examination  of  27  kinds  of  Irish 
peat,  the  specific  gravities  ranged  from  0.274  to  1.058. 

3. — Heating  power  of  peat  as  compared  with  wood  and 
anthracite. 

Karmarsch  found  that  in  absolute  heating  effect 

100  Ibs.  of  turfy,  air-dry  peat,  on  the  average  =     95  Ibs.  of  pine  wood. 
"  fibrous  "  "  "  =  108  "  " 

"  earthy  "  "  "          =  104  "  " 

"  pitchy  "  "  "          =111  "  " 

The  comparison  of  heating  power  by  bulk,  instead  of 
weight,  is  as  follows  :  — 

100  cubic  ft.  of  turfy  peat,  on  the  average*  =    33  cubic  ft.  of  pine  wood,  in  sticks. 
"        "        fibrous          "  "  =    00  "  "  "  " 

"        "        earthy  "  "  =  145  "  "  "  " 

pitchy  "  "  =  184  " 


*  The  rvaste  space  in  peat  and  wood  as  commonly  piled,  is  probably  included 
here  in  the  statement,  and  is  usually  about  the  same  in  both  ;  viz. :  not  far  from 
40  per  cent. 


PEAT   AS   FUEL.  97 

According  to  Brix,  the  weight  per  English  cord  and  rel 
ative  heating  effect  of  several  air-dry  peats — the  heating 
power  of  an  equal  bulk  of  oak  wood  being  taken  at  100 
as  a  standard — are  as  follows,  bulk  for  "bulk:  * 

Weiglitper  Heating 

cord.  effect. 

Oak  wood 4150  Ibs.  100 

Peat  from  Linuin,  1st  quality,  dense  and  pitchy 3400   "  70 

"           "          2cl        "         fibrous 2900   "  55 

3d        "         turfy 2270   "  53 

Peat  from  Buechsenfcld,  1st  quality,  pitchy,  very  hard  and  heavy,  3400  Ibs.  74 

2d       "        2730"  64 

These  statements  agree  in  showing,  that,  while  weight 
for  weight,  the  ordinary  qualities  of  peat  do  not  differ 
much  from  wood  in  heating  power;  the  heating  effect  of 
equal  bulks  of  this  fuel,  as  found  in  commerce,  may  vary 
extremely,  ranging  from  one-half  to  three  quarters  that 
of  oak  wood. 

Condensed  peat  may  be  prepared  by  machinery,  which 
will  weigh  more  than  hard  wood,  bulk  for  bulk,  and  whose 
heating  power  will  therefore  exceed  that  of  wood. 

Gysser  gives  the  following  comparisons  of  a  good  peat 
with  various  German  woods  and  charcoals,  equal  weights 
being  employed,  and  split  beech  wood,  air-dry,  assumed 
as  the  standard. f 

Beech  wood,  split,  air  dry  , 1.00 

Peat,  condensed  by  Weber's  &  Gysser's  method,!  air-dried,  with  25  per  cent. 

moisture  ...... 1.00 

Peat,  condensed  by  Weber's  &  Gysser's  method,  hot-dried,  with  10  per  cent. 

moisture 1.48 

Peat-charcoal,  from  condensed  peat 1.73 

The  same  peat,  simply  cut  and  air-dried. ,0.80 

Beech-charcoal 1.90 

Sumrner-oak  wood 1.18 

Birch  wood. , 0.95 

White  pine  wood 0.72 

Alder 0.65 

Linden  0.65 

Hed  pine 0.61 

Poplar 0.50 

*  See  note  on  the  preceding  page. 

t  Der  Torf,  etc.,  S.  43.      *  See  page  00. 

5 


98  PEAT   AND    ITS    USES. 

Some  experiments  have  been  made  in  this  country  on 
the  value  of  peat  as  fuel.  One  was  tried  on  the  N.  Y. 
Central  Railroad,  Jan.  3,  1866.  A  locomotive  with  25 
empty  freight  cars  attached,  was  propelled  from  Syracuse 
westward — the  day  being  cold  and  the  wind  ahead — at  the 
rate  of  16  miles  the  hour.  The  engineer  reported  that 
"the  peat  gave  us  as  much  steam  as  wood,  and  burnt  a 
beautiful  fire."  The  peat,  we  infer,  was  cut  and  prepared 
near  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

In  one  of  the  pumping  houses  of  the  Nassau  TVrater 
Department  of  the  City  of  Brooklyn,  an  experiment  has 
been  made  for  the  purpose  of  comparing  peat  with  anthra 
cite,  for  the  results  of  which  I  am  indebted  to  the  courtesy 
of  Moses  Lane,  Esq.,  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Department. 

Fire  was  started  under  a  steam  boiler  with  wood. 
When  steam  wras  up,  the  peat  wras  burned — its  quantity 
being  1743  Ibs.,  or  18  barrels — and  after  it  was  consumed, 
the  firing  was  continued  with  coal.  The  pressure  of  steam 
was  kept  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible  throughout  the 
trial,  and  it  was  found  that  with  1743  Ibs.  of  peat  the 
engine  made  2735  revolutions,  while  with  1100  Ibs.  of 
coal  it  made  3866  revolutions.  In  other  words,  100  Ibs. 
of  coal  produced  351T4o5o  revolutions,  and  100  Ibs.  of  peat 
produced  156nro  revolutions.  One  pound  of  coal  there 
fore  equalled  2r2o4<r  Ibs.  of  peat  in  heating  eifect.  The 
peat  burned  well  and  generated  steam  freely. 

Mr.  Lane  could  not  designate  the  quality  of  the  peat, 
not  having  been  able  to  witness  the  experiment. 

These  trials  have  not,  indeed,  all  the  precision  needful 
to  fix  with  accuracy  the  comparative  heating  eifect  of  the 
fuels  employed ;  for  a  furnace,  that  is  adapted  for  wood, 
is  not  necessarily  suited  to  peat,  and  a  coal  grate  must 
have  a  construction  unlike  that  which  is  proper  for  a  peat 
fire;  nevertheless  they  exhibit  the  relative  merits  of 


PEAT    AS   FUEL.  99 

wood,  peat,  and  anthracite,  with  sufficient  closeness  for 
most  practical  purposes. 

Two  considerations  would  prevent  the  use  of  ordinary 
cut  peat  in  large  works,  even  could  two  and  one-fourth 
tons  of  it  be  afforded  at  the  same  price  as  one  ton  of  coal. 
The  Nassau  Water  Department  consumes  20,000  tons  of 
coal  yearly,  the  handling  of  which  is  a  large  expense,  six 
firemen  being  employed  to  feed  the  furnaces.  To  gen 
erate  the  same  amount  of  steam  with  peat  of  the  quality 
experimented  with,  would  require  the  force  of  firemen  to 
be  considerably  increased.  Again,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  lay  in,  under  cover,  a  large  stock  of  fuel  during  the 
summer,  for  use  in  winter,  when  peat  cannot  be  raised. 
Since  a  barrel  of  this  peat  weighed  less  than  100  Ibs.,  the 
short  ton  would  occupy  the  volume  of  20  barrels ;  as  is 
well  known,  a  ton  of  anthracite  can  be  put  into  8  barrels. 
A  given  weight  of  peat  therefore  requires  2^  times  as 
much  storage  room,  as  the  same  weight  of  coal.  As 
2]  tons  of  peat,  in  the  case  we  are  considering,  are  equiv 
alent  to  but  one  ton  of  coal  in  heating  effect,  the  winter's 
supply  of  peat  fuel  would  occupy  5|  times  the  bulk  of  the 
same  supply  in  coal,  admitting  that  the  unoccupied  or  air 
space  in  a  pile  of  peat  is  the  same  as  in  a  heap  of  coal. 
In  fact,  the  calculation  would  really  turn  out  still  more  to 
the  disadvantage  of  peat,  because  the  air-space  in  a  bin 
of  peat  is  greater  than  in  one  of  coal,  and  coal  can  be  ex 
cavated  for  at  least  two  months  more  of  the  year  than 
peat/ 

It  is  asserted  by  some,  that,  because  peat  can  be  con 
densed  so  as  to  approach  anthracite  in  specific  gravity,  it 
must,  in  the  same  ratio,  approach  the  latter  in  heating 
power.  Its  effective  heating  power  is,  indeed,  consider 
ably  augmented  by  condensation,  but  no  mechanical  treat 
ment  can  increase  its  percentage  of  carbon  or  otherwise 


100  PEAT   AND   ITS   USES. 

alter  its  chemical  composition ;  hence  it  must  forever  re 
main  inferior  to  anthracite. 

The  composition  and  density  of  the  best  condensed  peat 
is  compared  with  that  of  hard  wood  and  anthracite  in  the 
following  statement :  — 

In  100  parts.      Carbon.      Hydrogen.      Oxygen  and      Ash.      Water.     Specific 

Nitrogen.  Gravity. 

Wood, 39.6 4.8     34.8 0.8 20.0 0.75 

Comiensed  peat  ..47.2 4.9. 22.9   5.0 20.0 1.20 

Anthracite 91.3 ..2.9 2.8 3.0 1.40 

In  combustion  in  ordinary  fires,  the  water  of  the  fuel  is 
a  source  of  waste,  since  it  consumes  heat  in  acquiring  the 
state  of  vapor.  This  is  well  seen  in  the  comparison  of  the 
same  kind  of  peat  in  different  states  of  dryness.  Thus, 
in  the  table  of  Gysser,  (page  97)  Weber's  condensed  peat, 
containing  10  per  cent,  of  moisture,  surpasses  in  heating 
effect  that  containing  25  per  cent,  of  moisture,  by  nearly 
one-half. 

The  oxygen  is  a  source  of  Avastc,  for  heat  as  developed 
from  fuel,  is  chiefly  a  result  of  the  chemical  union  of 
atmospheric  or  free  oxygen,  with  the  carbon  and  hydrogen 
of  the  combustible.  The  oxygen  of  the  fuel,  being  already 
combined  Avith  carbon  and  hydrogen,  not  only  cannot 
itself  contribute  to  the  generation  of  heat,  but  neutralizes 
the  heating  effect  of  those  portions  of  the  carbon  and  hy 
drogen  of  the  fuel  with  which  it  remains  in  combination. 
The  quantity  of  heating  effect  thus  destroyed,  cannot, 
however,  be  calculated  with  certainty,  because  physical 
changes,  viz :  the  conversion  of  solids  into  gases,  not  to 
speak  of  secondary  chemical  transformations,  whose  in 
fluence  cannot  be  estimated,  enter  into  the  computation. 

Nitrogen  and  ash  are  practically  indifferent  in  the  burn 
ing  process,  and  simply  impair  the  heating  value  of  fuel 
in  as  far  as  they  occupy  space  in  it,  and  make  a  portion 
of  its  weight,  to  the  exclusion  cf  combustible  matter. 


PEAT    AS    FUEL.  101 

Again,  as  regards  density,  peat  is,  in  general,  consider 
ably  inferior  to  anthracite.  The  best  uncondensed  peat 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  0.90.  Condensed  peat  usually 
does  riot  exceed  1.1.  Sometimes  it  is  made  of  sp.  gr.  1.3. 
Assertions  to  the  effect  of  its  acquiring  a  density  of  1.8, 
can  hardly  be  credited  of  pure  peat,  though  a  considerable 
admixture  of  sand  or  clay  might  give  such  a  result. 

The  comparative  heating  power  of  fuels  is  ascertained 
by  burning  them  in  an  apparatus,  so  constructed,  that 
the  heat  generated  shall  expend  itself  in  evaporating  or 
raising  the  temperature  of  a  known  quantity  of  water. 

The  amount  of  heat  that  will  raise  the  temperature  of 
one  gramme  of  water,  one  degree  of  the  centigrade  ther 
mometer^  is  agreed  upon  as  the  unit  of  heat.* 

In  the  complete  combustion  of  carbon  in  the  form  of 
charcoal  or  gas-coal,  there  are  developed  8060  units  of 
heat.  In  the  combustion  of  one  gramme  of  hydrogen 
gas,  34,210  units  of  heat  are  generated.  The  heating  ef 
fect  of  hydrogen  is  therefore  4.2  times  greater  than  that 
of  carbon.  It  was  long  supposed  that  the  heating  effect 
of  compound  combustibles  could  be  calculated  from  their 
elementary  composition.  This  view  is  proved  to  be  er 
roneous,  and  direct  experiment  is  the  only  satisfactory 
means  of  getting  at  the  truth  in  this  respect. 

The  data  of  Karmarsch,  Brix,  and  Gysser,  already 
given,  were  obtained  by  the  experimental  method.  They 
were,  however,  made  mostly  on  a  small  scale,  and,  in  some 
cases,  without  due  regard  to  the  peculiar  requirements  of 
the  different  kinds  of  fuel,  as  regards  fire  space,  draught, 
etc.  They  can  only  be  regarded  as  approximations  to  the 
truth,  and  have  simply  a  comparative  value,  which  is, 
however,  sufficient  for  ordinary  purposes. 

*  On  account  of  the  great  convenience  of  the  decimal  weights  and  measures, 
and  their  nearly  universal  recognition  by  scientific  men,  we  have  adopted  them 
here.  The  gramme  =  15  grains  ;  5  degrees  centigrade  =  9  degrees  Fahrenheit. 


102  PEAT    AND    ITS    USES. 

The  general  results  of  the  investigations  hitherto  made 
on  all  the  common  kinds  of  fuel,  are  given  in  the  subjoined 
statement.  The  comparison  is  made  in  units  of  heat,  and 
refers  to  equal  weights  of  the  materials  experimented 
with. 

HEATING  POWER   OF   DIFFERENT   KINDS   OF  FUEL. 

Air-dry  Wood 2800 

"    '    Peat  2500        3000 

Perfectly  dry  Wood 3600 

"         "        Peat  3000        4000 

Air-dry  Lignite  or  Brown  Co;il 3300        4200 

Perfectly  dry  Lignite  or  Brown  Coal 4000        5000 

Bituminous  Coal 3800        TOOO 

Anthracite 7500 

Wood  Charcoal 6300        7500 

Coke 6500        7600 

4. — Modes  of  Burning  Peat. 

In  the  employment  of  peat  fuel,  regard  must  be  had  to 
its  shape  and  bulk.  Commonly,  peat  is  cut  or  moulded 
into  blocks  or  sods  like  bricks,  which  have  a  length  of  8 
to  18  inches ;  a  breadth  of  4  to  6  inches,  and  a  thickness 
of  1£  to  3  inches.  Machine  peat  is  sometimes  formed  into 
circular  disks  of  2  to  3  inches  diameter,  and  1  to  2  inches 
thickness  and  thereabouts.  It  is  made  also  in  the  shape 
of  balls  of  2  to  3  inches  diameter.  Another  form  is  that  of 
thick-walled  pipes,  2  to  3  inches  in  diameter,  a  foot  or 
more  long,  and  with  a  bore  of  one-half  inch. 

Flat  blocks  are  apt  to  lie  closely  together  in  the  fire, 
and  obstruct  the  draft.  A  fire-place,  constructed  properly 
for  burning  them,  should  be  shallow,  not  admitting  of 
more  than  two  or  three  layers  being  superposed.  Ac 
cording  to  the  bulkiness  of  the  peat,  the  fire-place  should 
be  roomy,  as  regards  length  and  breadth. 

Fibrous  and  easily  crumbling  peat  is  usually  burned 
upon  a  hearth,  £.  e.  without  a  grate,  either  in  stoves  or  open 
fire- places.  Dense  peat  burns  best  upon  a  grate,  the  bars 
of  which  should  be  thin  and  near  together,  so  that  the 


PEAT    AS    FUEL. 


103 


air  have  access  to  every  part  of  the  fuel.  The  denser  and 
tougher  the  peat,  and  the  more  its  shape  corresponds  Avith 
that  usual  to  coal,  the  better  is  it  adapted  for  use  in  our 
ordinary  coal  stoves  and  furnaces. 

5. — Burning  of  broken  peat. 

Broken  peat — the  fragments  and  waste  of  the  cut  or 
moulded  blocks,  and  peat  as  obtained  by  plowing  and 
harrowing  the  surface  of  drained  peat-beds — may  be  used 
to  advantage  in  the  stair  grate,  fig.  1,  which  was  introduced 


Fig.  1.— STAIK  GRATE. 

some  years  ago  in  Austria,  and  is  adapted  exclusively  for 
burning  finely  divided  fuel.  It  consists  of  a  series  of  thin 
iron  bars  3  to  4  inches  wide,  «,«,«,....  which  are  ar 
ranged  above  each  other  like  steps,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 
They  are  usually  half  as  long  as  the  grate  is  wide,  and  are 
supported  at  each  end  by  two  side  pieces  or  walls,  L  Be 
low,  the  grate  is  closed  by  a  heavy  iron  plate.  The  fuel 
is  placed  in  the  hopper  A,  which  is  kept  filled,  and  from 


104  PEAT   AND    ITS    USES. 

which  it  falls  down  the  incline  as  rapidly  as  it  is  consumed. 
The  air  enters  from  the  space  G,  and  is  regulated  by 
doors,  not  shown  in  the  cut,  which  open  into  it.  The 
masonry  is  supported  at  u,  by  a  hollow  iron  beam.  Be 
low,  a  lateral  opening  serves  for  clearing  out  the  ashes. 
The  effect  of  the  fire  depends  upon  the  width  of  the 
throat  of  the  hopper  at  u,  which  regulates  the  supply  of 
fuel  to  the  grate,  and  upon  the  inclination  of  the  latter. 
The  throat  is  usually  from  6  to  8  inches  wide,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  fuel.  The  inclination  of  the  grate  is 
40  to  45°  and,  in  general,  should  be  that  which  is  assumed 
by  the  sides  of  a  pile  of  the  fuel  to  be  burned,  when  it  is 
thrown  up  into  a  heap.  This  grate  ensures  complete 
combustion  of  fuel  that  would  fall  through  ordinary 
grates,  and  that  would  merely  smoulder  upon  a  hearth. 
The  fire  admits  of  easy  regulation,  the  ashes  may  be  re 
moved  and  the  fuel  may  be  supplied  without  checking 
the  fire.  Not  only  broken  peat,  but  coal  dust,  saw  dust, 
wood  turnings  and  the  like  may  be  burned  on  this  grate. 
The  figure  represents  it  as  adapted  to  a  steam  boiler. 

6. — Hygroscopic  water  of  peat  fuel. 

The  quantity  of  water  retained  by  air-dried  peat  ap 
pears  to  be  the  same  as  exists  in  air-dried  wood,  viz.,  about 
20  per  cent.  The  proportion  will  vary  however  according 
to  the  time  of  seasoning.  In  thoroughly  seasoned  wood 
or  peat,  it  may  be  but  15  per  cent. ;  while  in  the  poorly 
dried  material  it  may  amount  to  25  or  more  per  cent. 
When  hot-dried,  the  proportion  of  water  may  be  reduced 
to  10  per  cent.,  or  less. 

When  peat  is  still  moist,  it  gathers  water  rapidly  from 
damp  air,  and  in  this  condition  has  been  known  to  burst 
the  sheds  in  which  it  was  stored,  but  after  becoming  dry 
to  the  eye  and  feel,  it  is  but  little  affected  by  dampness, 
no  more  so,  it  appears,  than  seasoned  wood. 


PEAT    AS    FUEL.  105 

7. — Shrinkage. 

In  estimating  the  value  and  cost  of  peat  fuel,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  peat  shrinks  greatly  in  drying,  so  that 
three  to  five  cords  of  fresh  peat  yield  but  one  cord  of  dry 
peat.  When  the  fiber  of  the  peat  is  broken  by  the  hand, 
or  by  machinery,  the  shrinkage  is  often  much  greater, 
and  may  sometimes  amount  to  seven-eighths  of  the  origi 
nal  volume. — Dingier 's  Journal,  Oct.  1864,  S.  68. 

The  difference  in  weight  between  fresh  and  dry  peat 
is  even  greater.  Fibrous  peat,  fresh  from  the  bog,  may 
contain  ninety  per  cent,  of  water,  of  which  seventy  per 
cent,  must  evaporate  before  it  can  be  called  dry.  The 
proportion  of  water  in  earthy  or  pitchy  peat  is  indeed 
less;  but  the  quantity  is  always  large,  so  that  from  five  to 
nine  hundred  weight  of  fresh  peat  must  be  lifted  in  order 
to  make  one  hundred  weight  of  dry  fuel. 

8. — Time  of  excavation,  and  drying. 

Peat  which  is  intended  to  be  used  after  simply  drying, 
must  be  excavated  so  early  in  the  season  that  it  shall  be 
come  dry  before  frosty  weather  arrives  :  because,  if  frozen 
when  wet,  its  coherence  is  destroyed,  and  on  thawing  it 
falls  to  a  powder  useless  for  fuel. 

Peat  must  be  dried  with  certain  precautions.  If  a 
block  of  fresh  peat  be  exposed  to  hot  sunshine,  it  dries 
and  shrinks  on  the  surface  much  more  rapidly  than  with 
in  :  as  a  consequence  it  cracks,  loses  its  coherence,  and 
the  block  is  easily  broken,  or  of  itself  falls  to  pieces.  In 
Europe,  it  is  indeed  customary  to  dry  peat  without  shel 
ter,  the  loss  by  too  rapid  drying  not  being  greater  than 
the  expense  of  building  and  maintaining  drying  sheds. 
There  however  the  sun  is  not  as  intense,  nor  the  air  near 
ly  so  dry,  as  it  is  here.  Even  there,  the  occurrence  of  an 
unusually  hot  summer,  causes  great  loss.  In  our  climate, 
5* 


106  PEAT    AXD    ITS    USES. 

some  shelter  would  be  commonly  essential  unless  the  peat 
be  dug  early  in  the  spring,  so  as  to  lose  the  larger  share  of 
its  water  before  the  hot  weather ;  or,  as  would  be  best  of 
all,  in  the  autumn  late  enough  to  escape  the  heat,  but 
early  enough  to  ensure  such  dryness  as  'would  prevent 
damage  by  frost.  The  peculiarities  of  climate  must  de 
cide  the  time  of  excavating  and  the  question  of  shelter. 

The  point  in  drying  peat  is  to  make  it  lose  its  water 
gradually  and  regularly,  so  that  the  inside  of  each  block 
shall  dry  nearly  as  fast  as  the  outside. 

Some  of  the  methods  of  hot-drying  peat,  will  be  subse 
quently  noticed. 

Summer  or  fall  digging  would  be  always  advantageous 
on  account  of  the  swamps  being  then  most  free  from 
water.  In  Bavaria,  peat  is  dug  mostly  in  July  and  the 
first  half  of  August. 

9. — Drainage. 

When  it  is  intended  to  raise  peat  fuel  in  the  form  of 
blocks,  the  bog  should  be  drained  no  more  rapidly  than  it  is 
excavated.  Peat,  which  is  to  be  worth  cutting  in  the 
spring,  must  be  covered  with  water  during  the  winter,  else 
it  is  pulverized  by  the  frost.  So,  too,  it  must  be  protected 
against  drying  away  and  losing  its  coherency  in  summer, 
by  being  kept  sufficiently  impregnated  with  water. 

In  case  an  extensive  bog  is  to  be  drained  to  facili 
tate  the  cutting  out  of  the  peat  for  use  as  fuel,  the 
canals  that  carry  off  the  water  from  the  parts  which  are 
excavating,  should  be  so  constructed,  that  on  the  ap 
proach  of  cold  weather,  the  remaining  peat  may  be  flooded 
again  to  the  usual  height. 

In  most  of  the  smaller  swamps,  systematic  draining  is 
unnecessary,  the  water  drying  away  in  summer  enough  to 
admit  of  easy  working. 


PEAT   AS    FUEL.  107 

In  some  methods  of  preparing  or  condensing  peat  by 
machinery,  it  is  best  or  even  needful  to  drain  and  air-dry 
the  peat,  preliminary  to  working.  By  draining,  the  peat 
settles,  especially  on  the  borders  of  the  ditches,  several 
inches,  or  even  feet,  according  to  its  nature  and  depth.  It 
thus  becomes  capable  of  bearing  teams  and  machinery, 
and  its  density  is  very  considerably  augmented. 

10. — The   Cutting  of  Peat. — a.  Preparations. 

In  preparing  to  raise  peat  fuel  from  the  bog,  the  sur 
face  material,  which  from  the  action  of  frost  and  sun  has 
been  pulverized  to  "  muck,"  or  which  otherwise  is  full  of 
roots  and  undecomposed  matters,  must  be  removed  usu 
ally  to  the  depth  of  12  to  18  inches.  It  is  only  those  por 
tions  of  the  peat  which  have  never  frozen  nor  become  dry, 
and  are  free  from  coarse  fibers  of  recent  vegetation,  that 
can  be  cut  for  fuel. 

Peat  fuel  must  be  brought  into  the  form  of  blocks  or 
masses  of  such  size  and  shape  as  to  adapt  them  to  use  in 
our  common  stoves  and  furnaces.  Commonly,  the  peat  is 
of  such  consistence  in  its  native  bed,  that  it  may  be  cut 
out  with  a  spade  or  appropriate  tool  into  blocks  having 
more  or  less  coherence.  Sometimes  it  is  needful  to  take 
away  the  surplus  water  from  the  bog,  and  allow  the  peat 
to  settle  and  drain  a  while  before  it  can  be  cut  to  advantage. 

When  a  bog  is  to  be  opened,  a  deep  ditch  is  run  from 
an  outlet  or  lowest  point  a  short  distance  into  the  peat 
bed,  and  the  working  goes  on  from  the  banks  of  this 
ditch.  It  is  important  that  system  be  followed  in  raising 
the  peat,  or  there  will  be  great  waste  of  fuel  and  of  labor. 

If,  as  often  happens,  the  peat  is  so  soft  in  the  wet  sea 
son  as  to  break  on  the  vertical  walls  of  a  ditch  and  fill  it, 
at  the  same  time  dislocating  the  mass  arid  spoiling  it  for 
cutting,  it  is  best  to  carry  down  the  ditch  in  terraces,  mak 
ing  it  wide  above  and  narrow  at  the  bottom. 


108 


PEAT    AXD    ITS    USES. 


#.    Cutting  ~by  hand. 

The  simplest  mode  of  procedure,  consists  in  laying  off 
a  "  field  "  or  plot  of,  say  20  feet  square,  and  making  ver 
tical  cuts  with  a  sharp  spade  three  or  four  inches  deep 
from  end  to  end  in  parallel  lines,  as  far  apart  as  it  is  pro 
posed  to  make  the  breadth  of  the  peats  or  sods,  usually 
four  to  five  inches.  Then,  the  field  is  cut  in  a  similar 
manner  in  lines  at  right  angles  to  the  first,  and  at  a  dis 
tance  that  shall  be  the  length  of  the  peats,  say  18  to  20 
inches.  Finally,  the  workman  lifts  the  peats  by  horizon 
tal  thrusts  of  his  spade,  made  at  a  depth  of  three  inches. 
The  sods  as  lifted,  are  placed  on  a  light  barrow  or  upon 
a  board  or  rack,  and  are  carried  off  to  a  drying  ground, 
near  at  hand,  where  they  are  laid  doAvn  flatwise  to  drain 
and  dry.  In  Ireland,  it  is  the  custom, 
after  the  peats  have  lain  thus  for  a  fort 
night  or  so,  to  "  foot  "  them,  i.  e.  to  place 
them  on  end  close  together ;  after  further 
drying  the  "footing"  is  succeeded  by 
"  clamping,"  which  is  building  the  sods 
up  into  stacks  of  about  twelve  to  fifteen 
feet  long,  four  feet  wide  at  bottom,  nar 
rowing  to  one  foot  at  top,  with  a  height 
of  four  to  five  feet.  The  outer  turfs  are 
inclined  so  ns  to  shed  the  rain.  The  peat 
often  remains  in  these  clamps  on  the  bog 
until  wanted  for  use,  though  in  rainy 
seasons  the  loss  by  crumbling  is  con 
siderable. 

Other  modes  of  lifting  peat,  require  tools  of  particular 

construction In  Germany  it  is  common  to  excavate 

by  vertical  thrusts  of  the  tool,  the  cutting  part  of  which 
is  represented  above,  fig.  2.  This  tool  is  pressed  down  in 
to  the  peat  to  a  depth  corresponding  to  the  thickness  of 


i£.  2. — GERMAN 
PEAT-KNIFE. 


TEAT    AS    FUEL.  109 

the  required  block  :  its  three  edges  cut  as  many  sides  of 
the  block,  and  the  bottom  is  then  broken  or  torn  out  by 
a  prying  motion. 

In  other  cases,  this  or  a  similar  tool  is  forced  down  by 
help  of  the  foot  as  deeply  into  the  peat  as  possible  by  a 
workman  standing  above,  while  a  second  man  in  the 
ditch  cuts  out  the  blocks  of  proper  thickness  by  means 
of  a  sharp  spade  thrust  horizontally.  When  the  peats  are 
taken  out  to  the  depth  of  the  first  vertical  cutting,  the 
knife  is  used  again  from  above,  and  the  process  is  thus 
continued  as  before,  until  the  bottom  of  the  peat  or  the 
desired  depth  is  reached. 

In  Ireland,  is  employed  the  "  slane,"  a  common  form  of 
which  is  shown  in  fig.  3,  it  being  a  long,  narrow  and 
sharp  spade,  20  inches  by  six,  with  a  wing  at  right  angles 
to  the  blade. 


Fig.  3. — IRISH  SLANE. 

The  peats  are  cut  by  one  thrust  of  this  instrument 
which  is  worked  by  the  arms  alone.  After  a  vertical  cut 
is  made  by  a  spade,  in  a  line  at  right  angles  to  a  bank  of 
peat,  the  slane  cuts  the  bottom  and  other  side  of  the 
block  ;  while  at  the  end  the  latter  is  simply  lifted  or 
broken  away. 

Peat  is  most  easily  cut  in  a  vertical  direction,  but  when, 
as  often  happens,  it  is  made  up  of  layers,  the  sods  are 
likely  to  break  apart  where  these  join.  Horizontal  cut 
ting  is  therefore  best  for  stratified  peat. 

System  employed  In  East  Friesland. — In  raising  peat, 
great  waste  both  of  labor  and  of  fuel  may  easily  occur  as 
the  result  of  random  and  unsystematic  methods  of  work- 


110  PEAT    AXD    ITS    USES. 

ing.  For  this  reason,  the  mode  of  cutting  peat,  followed 
in  the  extensive  moors  of  East  Friesland,  is  worthy  of 
particular  description.  There,  the  business  is  pursued 
systematically  on  a  plan,  which,  it  is  claimed,  long  experi 
ence  *  has  developed  to  such  perfection  that  the  utmost 
economy  of  time  and  labor  is  attained.  The  cost  of 
producing  marketable  peat  in  East  Friesland  in  18GO,  was 
one  silver  groschen=about  2\  cents,  per  hundred  weight ; 
while  at  that  time,  in  Bavaria,  the  hundred  weight  cost 
three  times  as  much  when  fit  for  market ;  and  this,  not 
withstanding  living  and  labor  are  much  cheaper  in  the 
latter  country. 

The  method  to  be  described,  presupposes  that  the 
workmen  are  not  hindered  by  water,  which,  in  most 
cases,  can  be  easily  removed  from  the  high-moors  of  the 
region.  The  peat  is  worked  in  long  stretches  of  10  feet 
in  width,  and  100  to  1000  paces  in  length  :  each  stretch 
or  plot  is  excavated  at  once  to  a  considerable  depth  and 
to  its  full  width.  Each  successive  year  the  excavation  is 
widened  by  10  feet,  its  length  remaining  the  same.  Some 
times,  unusual  demand  leads  to  more  rapid  working ;  but 
the  width  of  10  feet  is  adhered  to  for  each  cutting,  and, 
on  account  of  the  labor  of  carrying  the  peats,  it  is  pre 
ferred  to  extend  the  length  rather  than  the  width. 

Assuming  that  the  peat  bed  has  been  opened  by  a  pre 
vious  cutting,  to  the  depth  of  5|  feet,  and  the  surface 
muck  and  li<>-ht  peat,  1*  feet  thick,  have  been  thrown  into 
the  excavation  of  the  year  before — a  new  plot  is  worked 
by  five  men  as  follows. 

*  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  (Lib.  XVI,  1)  rxpresses  his  pity  for  the  •'  miserable  people" 
living  in  East  Friesland  an  I  vicinity  in  his  day,  who  "dug  out  wilh  the  hands  a 
moor  earth,  which,  dried  more  by  wind  than  sun.  they  used  fur  preparing  their 
food  and  warming  their  bodie*  :"  captum  mdntbus  lulum  ventis  magis  quam 
sole  siccantis.  terra  cibos  et  rigentia  septembrione  viscera  sua  urunt. 

As  regards  the  '-misera  gens,"  it  should  be  said  that  rich  grain  fields  and  nu 
merous  flourishing  villages  have  occupied  for  several  centuries  large  portions  of 
the  Duevel  moor  near  Bremen. 


PEAT   AS   FUEL.  Ill 

One  man,  the  "  Bunker,"  removes  from  the  surface, 
about  two  inches  of  peat,  disintegrated  by  the  winter's 
frost,  throwing  it  into  last  year's  ditch. 

Following  him,  come  two  "  Diggers,"  of  whom  one 
stands  on  the  surface  of  the  peat,  and  with  a  heavy, 
long  handled  tool,  cuts  out  the  sides  and  end  of  the  blocks, 
which  are  about  seventeen  by  five  inches  ;  while  the  other 
stands  in  the  ditch,  and  by  horizontal  thrusts  of  a  light, 
sharp  spade,  removes  the  sods,  each  of  five  and  a  half 
inches  thickness,  and  places  them  on  a  small  board  near 
by.  Each  block  of  peat  has  the  dimensions  of  one  fourth 
of  a  cubic  foot,  and  weighs  about  13  pounds.  Two  good 
workmen  will  raise  25  such  peats,  or  6}  cubic  feet,  per 
minute. 

A  fourth  man,  the  "  Loader,"  puts  the  sods  upon  a 
wheel-barrow,  always  two  rows  of  six  each,  one  upon 
the  other,  and — 

A  fifth,  the  "Wheeler,"  removes  the  load  to  the  dry 
ing  ground,  and  with  some  help  from  the  Bunker,  dis 
poses  them  flatwise  in  rows  of  16  sods  wide,  which  run 
at  right  angles  to  the  ditch,  and,  beginning  at  a  little 
more  than  10  feet  from  the  latter,  extend  50  feet. 

The  space  of  10  feet  between  the  plot  that  is  excavat 
ing,  and  the  drying  ground,  is,  at  the  same  time,  cleared 
of  the  useless  surface  muck  by  the  Bunker,  in  preparation 
for  the  next  year's  work. 

With  moderate  activity,  the  five  men  will  lift  and  lay 
out  12,000  sods  (3000  cubic  feet,)  daily,  and  it  is  not  un 
common  that  five  first-rate  hands  get  out  16,800  peats 
(4200  cubic  feet,)  in  this  time. 

A  gang  of  five  men,  working  as  described,  suffices  for 
cutting  out  abed  of  four  feet  of  solid  peat.  When  the  ex 
cavation  is  to  be  made  deeper,  a  sixth  man,  the  "  Hanker," 
is  needful  for  economical  work ;  and  with  his  help  the  cut 
ting  may  be  extended  down  to  nine  and  a  half  feet ;  i.  e. 


112  PEAT   AND    ITS    USES. 

through  eight  feet  of  solid  peat.  The  cutting  is  carried 
down  at  first,  four  feet  as  before,  but  the  peats  are  carried 
50  feet  further,  in  order  to  leave  room  for  those  to  be 
subsequently  lifted.  The  "  Hanker "  aids  here,  with  a 
second  wheel-barrow.  In  taking  out  the  lower  peat,  the 
"  Hanker  "  stands  on  the  bottom  of  the  first  excavation, 
receives  the  blocks  from  the  Diggers,  on  a  broad  wooden 
shovel,  and  hands  them  up  to  the  Loader;  while  the 
Wheeler,  having  only  the  usual  distance  to  carry  them, 
lays  them  out  in  the  drying  rows  without  difficulty. 

After  a  little  drying  in  the  rows,  the  peats  are  gradu 
ally  built  up  into  narrow  piles,  like  a  brick  wall  of  one 
and  a  half  bricks  thickness.  These  piles  are  usually 
raised  by  women.  They  are  made  in  the  spaces  between 
the  rows,  and  are  laid  up  one  course  at  a  time,  so  that 
each  block  may  dry  considerably,  before  it  is  covered  by 
another.  A  woman  can  lay  up  12,000  peats  daily  —  the 
number  lifted  by  5  men — and  as  it  requires  about  a  month 
of  good  weather  to  give  each  course  time  (two  days)  to 
dry,  she  is  able  to  pile  for  30  gangs  of  workmen.  If  the 
weather  be  very  favorable,  the  peats  may  be  stacked  or 
put  into  sheds,  in  a  few  days  after  the  piling  is  finished. 
Stacking  is  usually  practised.  The  stacks  are  carefully 
laid  up  in  cylindrical  form,  and  contain  200  to  500  cubic 
feet.  When  the  stacks  are  properly  built,  the  peat  suffers 
but  little  from  the  weather. 

According  to  Schroeder,  from  whose  account  (Dingler's 
Polytechnisches  Journal,  Bd.  156,  S.128)  the  above  state 
ments  are  derived,  the  peats  excavated  under  his  direc 
tion,  in  drying  thoroughly,  shrank  to  about  one-fourth 
of  their  original  bulk  (became  12  inches  *  3  inches  x  3  inch 
es,)  and  to  one-seventh  or  one-eighth  of  their  original 
weight. 


PEAT   AS    FUEL.  113 

c.  Machines  for   Cutting  Peat. 

In  North  Prussia,  the  Peat  Cutting  Machine  of  Bro- 
sowsky,  see  fig.  4,  is  extensively  employed.  It  consists 
of  a  cutter,  made  like  the  four  sides  of  a  box,  but  with 
oblique  edges,  a,  which  by  its  own  weight,  and  by  means 
of  a  crank  and  rack-work,  operated  by  men,  is  forced 
down  into  the  peat  to  a  depth  that  may  reach  20  feet. 
It  can  cut  only  at  the  edge  of  a  ditch  or  excavation,  and 
M'hen  it  has  penetrated  sufficiently,  a  spade  like  blade,  d, 
is  driven  under  the  cutter  by  means  of  levers  <",  and  thus 
a  mass  is  loosened,  having  a  vertical  length  of  10  feet  or 
more,  and  whose  other  dimensions  are  about  24  x  28  inches. 
This  is  lifted  by  reversing  the  crank  motion,  and  is  then 
cut  up  by  the  spade  into  blocks  of  14  inches  x  6  inches  x  5 
inches.  Each  parallelopipcdon  of  peat,  cut  to  a  depth  of 
10  feet,  makes  144  sods,  and  this  number  can  be  cut  in 
less  than  10  minutes.  Four  hands  will  cut  and  lay  out  to 
dry,  12,000  to  14,000  peats  daily,  or  3100  cubic  feet.  One 
great  advantage  of  this  machine  consists  in  the  circum 
stance  that  it  can  be  used  to  raise  peat  from  below  the 
surface  of  water,  rendering  drainage  in  many  cases  un 
necessary.  Independently  of  this,  it  appears  to  be  highly 
labor  saving,  since  1300  machines  were  put  to  use  in 
Mecklenburg  and  Pomerania  in  about  5  years  from  its  in 
troduction.  The  Mecklenburg  moors  are  now  traversed 
by  canals,  cut  by  this  machine,  which  are  used  for  the 
transportation  of  the  peat  to  market.* 

Lepreux  in  Paris,  has  invented  a  similar  but  more  com 
plicated  machine,  which  is  said  to  be  very  effective  in  its 
operation.  According  to  Herve  Mangon,  this  machine, 
when  worked  by  two  men,  raises  and  cuts  40,000  peats 
daily,  of  which  seven  make  one  cubic  foot,  equal  to  5600 

*  For  further  account  and  plans  of  this  machine  see  Dingler's  Polytechnisches 
Journal,  Bd.  176,  S.  336. 


(114)  Fig.  4.— BEOSOWSKY'S  PEAT  CUTTER. 


PEAT   AS    FUEL.  115 

cubic  feet.  The  saving  in  expense  by  using  this  machine* 
is  said  to  be  ^percent.,  when  the  peat  to  be  raised  is 
under  water. 

11.— The  Dredging  of  Peat. 

"When  peat  exists,  not  as  a  coherent  more  or  less  fibrous 
mass,  but  as  a  paste  or  mud,  saturated  with  water,  it  can 
not  be  raised  and  formed  by  the  methods  above  described. 

In  such  cases  the  peat  is  dredged  from  the  bottom  of  the 
bog  by  means  of  an  iron  scoop,  like  a  pail  with  sharp  up 
per  edges,  which  is  fastened  to  a  long  handle.  The 
bottom  is  made  of  coarse  sacking,  so  that  the  water 
may  run  off.  Sometimes,  a  stout  ring  of  iron  with  a 
bag  attached,  is  employed  in  the  same  way.  The  fine 
peafis  emptied  from  the  dredge  upon  the  ground,  where 
it  remains,  until  the  water  has  been  absorbed  or  has 
evaporated,  so  far  as  to  leave  the  mass  somewhat  firm 
and  plastic.  In  the  mean  time,  a  drying  bed  is  pre 
pared  by  smoothing,  and,  if  needful,  stamping  a  sufficient 
space  of  ground,  and  enclosing  it  in  boards  14  inches 
wide,  set  on  edge.  Into  this  bed  the  partially  dried  peat 
is  thrown,  and,  as  it  cracks  on  the  surface  by  drying,  it 
is  compressed  by  blows  with  a  heavy  mallet  or  flail,  or  by 
treading  it  with  flat  boarc}s,  attached  to  the  feet,  some 
what  like  snow  shoes.  By  this  treatment  the  mass  is  re 
duced  to  a  continuous  sheet  of  less  than  one-half  its  first 
thickness,  and  becomes  so  firm,  that  a  man's  step  gives 
little  impression  in  it.  The  boards  are  now  removed,  and 
it  is  cut  into  blocks  by  means  of  a  very  thin,  sharp  spade. 
Every  other  block  being  lifted  out  and  placed  crosswise 
upon  those  remaining,  air  is  admitted  to  the  whole  and 
the  drying  goes  on  rapidly.  This  kind  of  peat  is  usually 
of  excellent  quality.  In  North  Germany  it  is  called 
"  Baggertorf ,"  i.  e.  mud-peat. 

*  Described  and  figured  in  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  d'Encouragement,  August 
1857,  p.  513  :  also  Dingler's  Polytechnisuhes  Journal,  Bd.  146,  S.  252. 


116  PEAT    AND    ITS    USES. 

Peat  is  sometimes  dredged  by  machinery,  as  will  be 
noticed  hereafter. 

12. — The  Moulding  of  Peat. 

When  black,  earthy  or  pitchy  peat  cannot  be  cut,  and  is 
not  so  saturated  with  water  as  to  make  a  mud  ;  it  is,  after 
raking  or  picking  out  roots,  etc.,  often  worked  into  a  paste 
by  the  hands  or  feet,  with  addition  of  water,  until  it  can  be 
formed  into  blocks  which,  by  slow  drying,  acquire  great 
firmness.  In  Ireland  this  product  is  termed  "hand-peat." 
In  Germany  it  is  called  "  Formtorf,"  /.  e.  moulded  peat,  or 
"  Backtorf,"  i.  e.  baked  peat. 

The  shaping  is  sometimes  accomplished  by  plastering 
the  soft  mass  into  wooden  moulds,  as  in  making  bricks. 

13. — Preparation  of  Peat  Fuel  by  Machinery,  etc. 

Within  the  last  15  years,  numerous  inventions  have 
been  made  with  a  view  to  improving  the  quality  of  peat 
fuel,  as  well  as  to  expedite  its  production.  These  inven 
tions  are  directed  to  the  following  points,  viz. :  1.  Con 
densation  of  the  peat,  so  as  bring  more  fuel  into  a  given 
space,  thus  making  it  capable  of  giving  out  an  intenser 
heat ;  at  the  same  time  increasing  its  hardness  and  tough 
ness,  and  rendering  it  easier  and  more  economical  of 
transportation.  2.  Drying  by  artifical  heat  or  reducing 
the  amount  of  water  from  20  or  25  per  cent,  to  half  that 
quantity  or  less.  This  exalts  the  heating  power  in  no  in 
considerable  degree.  3.  Charring.  Peat-charconl  is  as 
much  better  than  peat,  for  use  where  intense  heat  is  re 
quired,  as  wood  charcoal  is  better  than  wood.  4.  Puri 
fying  from  useless  matters.  Separation  of  earthy  ad 
mixtures  which  are  incombustible  and  hinder  draught. 

A. —  Condensation  by  Pressure. 

Pressing  Wet  Peat.  —  The  condensation  of  peat  was 
first  attempted  by  subjecting  the  fresh,  wet  material,  to 
severe  pressure.  As  long  ago  as  the  year  1 821,  Pernitzsch, 


PEAT    AS    FUEL.  117 

in  Saxony,  prepared  peat  by  this  method,  and  shortly  af 
terwards  Lord  Willoughby  d'Eresby,  in  Scotland,  and 
others,  adopted  the  same  principle.  Simple  pressure  will, 
indeed,  bring  fresh  peat  at  once  into  much  smaller  bulk ; 
but,  if  the  peat  be  fibrous  and  light,  and  for  this  reason 
require  condensation,  it  is  also  elastic,  and,  when  the 
pressure  is  relieved,  it  acquires  again  much  of  its  original 
volume. 

Furthermore,  although  pressure  will  squeeze  out  much 
water  from  a  saturated  well-ripened  peat,  the  complete 
drying  of  the  pressed  blocks  usually  requires  as  much  or 
more  time  than  that  of  the  unpressed  material,  on  account 
of  the  closeness  of  texture  of  the  surface  produced  by  the 
pressure. 

The  advantages  of  subjecting  fresh  peat  to  pressure  in 
the  ordinary  presses,  it  is  found,  are  more  than  offset  by 
the  expense  of  the  operation,  and  it  is  therefore  unneces 
sary  to  give  the  subject  further  attention. 

Fresh  peat  appears  however  to  have  been  advan 
tageously  pressed  by  other  mechanical  means.  Two  me 
thods  require  notice. 

Mannhardf s  Method,  invented  about  the  year  1858, 
has  been  practically  applied  on  the  large  scale  at  Schleiss- 
heim,  Bavaria.  Mannhardt's  machine  consists  of  two 
colossal  iron  rolls,  each  of  15  feet  diameter,  and  6|  feet 
length,  geared  into  each  other  so  as  to  revolve  horizontally 
in  opposite  directions  and  with  equal  velocity.  These 
rolls  are  hollow,  their  circumference  consists  of  stout  iron 
plate  perforated,  with  numerous  small  holes,  and  is  sup 
ported  by  iron  bars  which  connect  the  ends  of  the  roll, 
having  intervals  between  them  of  about  one  inch.  Each 
roll  is  covered  by  an  endless  band  of  hair  cloth,  stretched 
over  and  kept  in  place  by  rollers.  The  rolls  are  operated 
by  a  steam  engine  of  12  horse  power.  The  fresh  peat  is 


118  PEAT   AXD    ITS    USES. 

thrown  into  a  hopper,  and  passing  between  the  rolls,  loses 
a  considerable  share  of  its  water,  issuing  as  a  broad  con 
tinuous  sheet,  which  is  divided  into  blocks  by  an  arrange 
ment  presently  to  be  described.  The  cloth,  covering  the 
rolls,  must  have  great  strength,  sufficient  porosity  to  allow 
water  to  pass  it  freely,  and  such  closeness  of  texture  as  to 
retain  the  fine  particles  of  peat.  Many  trials  have  led  to 
the  use  of  a  fabric,  specially  made  for  the  purpose,  of 
goat's  hair.  The  cloth  for  each  pair  of  rolls,  costs  $160. 

The  peat  at  Schleissheim  is  about  5  feet  in  depth,  and 
consists  of  a  dark-brown  rnud  or  paste,  free  from  stones 
and  sticks,  and  penetrated  only  by  fine  fibers.  The  peat 
is  thrown  up  on  the  edge  of  a  ditch,  and  after  draining,  is 
moved  on  a  tram-way  to  the  machine.  It  is  there  thrown 
upon  a  chain  of  buckets,  which  deliver  it  at  the  hopper 
above  the  rolls.  The  rolls  revolve  once  in  7J  minutes  and 
at  each  revolution  turn  out  a  sheet  of  peat,  which  cuts  in 
to  528  blocks.  Each  block  has,  when  moist,  a  length  of 
about  12  inches,  by  5  inches  of  width  and  1£  inches  of 
thickness,  and  weighs  on  the  average  1^  Ibs.  The  water 
that  is  pressed  out  of  the  peat,  falls  within  the  rolls  and  is 
conducted  away ;  it  is  but  slightly  turbid  from  suspended 
particles.  The  band  of  pressed  peat  is  divided  in  one  di 
rection  as  it  is  formed,  by  narrow  slats  which  are  secured 
horizontally  to  the  press-cloth,  at  about  5  inches  distance 
from  each  other.  The  further  division  of  the  peat  is  ac 
complished  by  a  series  of  six  circular  saws,  under  which 
the  peat  is  carried  as  it  is  released  from  the  rolls,  by  a  sys 
tem  of  endless  cords  strung  over  rollers.  These  cords  run 
parallel  until  the  peat  passes  the  saws ;  thenceforth  they 
radiate,  so  that  the  peat-blocks  are  separated  somewhat 
from  each  other.  They  are  carried  on  until  they  reach  a 
roll,  over  which  they  are  delivered  upon  drying  lattices. 
The  latter  move  regularly  under  the  roll ;  the  peats  ar 
range  themselves  upon  them  edgewise,  one  leaning  against 


PEAT   AS    FUEL.  119 

the  other,  so  as  to  admit  of  free  circulation  of  air.  The 
lattices  are  loaded  upon  cars,  and  moved  on  a  tram-way 
to  the  drying  ground,  where  they  are  set  up  in  frames. 

The  peat-cake  separates  well  from  the  press-cloths ; 
but  the  pores  of  the  latter  become  somewhat  choked  by 
fine  particles  that  penetrate  them.  They  are  therefore 
washed  at  each  revolution  by  passing  before  a  pipe  from 
which  issue,  against  them,  a  number  of  jets  of  water  un 
der  high  pressure.  The  blocks,  after  leaving  the  machine, 
are  soft,  and  require  5  or  6  days  to  become  air-dry.  When 
dry  they  are  dense  and  of  good  quality,  but  not  better 
than  the  same  raw  material  yields  by  simple  moulding. 
The  capacity  of  the  rolls,  which  easily  turn  out  100,000 
peats  in  24  hours,  greatly  exceeds  at  present  that  of  the 
drying  arrangements,  and  for  this  reason  the  works  are 
not,  as  yet,  remunerative.  The  rolls  are,  in  reality,  a  sim 
ple  forming  machine.  The  pressure  they  exert  on  the 
peat,  is  but  inconsiderable,  owing  to  its  soft  pasty  charac 
ter  ;  and  since  the  pair  of  rolls  costs  $8000  and  can  only  be 
worked  3  to  4  months,  this  method  must  be  regarded 
rather  as  an  ingenious  and  instructive  essay  in  the  art  of 
making  peat-fuel,  than  as  a  practical  success.  The  per 
severing  efforts  of  the  inventor  may  yet  overcome  all  dif 
ficulties  and  prove  the  complete  efficacy  of  the  method. 
It  is  especially  important,  that  blocks  of  greater  thickness 
should  be  produced,  since  those  now  made,  pack  together 
too  closely  in  the  fire. 

Neustadt  Method. — At  ISTeustadt,  in  Hanover,  a  loose- 
textured  fibrous  peat  was  prepared  for  metallurgical  use 
in  1860,  by  passing  through  iron  rolls  of  ordinary  construc 
tion.  The  peat  was  thereby  reduced  two-thirds  in  bulk, 
burned  more  regularly,  gave  a  coherent  coal,  and  with 
stood  carriage  better.  The  peat  was,  however,  first  cut 
into  sods  of  regular  size,  and  these  were  fed  into  the 
rollers  by  boys. 


120  PEAT   AXD    ITS    USES. 

(b)     Pressing  Air-dried  Peat. 

Some  kinds  of  peat,  when  in  the  air-dry  and  pulverized 
state,  yield  by  great  pressure  very  firm,  excellent,  and 
economical  fuel. 

Lithuanian  Process. — In  Lithuania,  according  to  Leo,* 
the  following  method  is  extensively  adopted.  The  bog 
is  drained,  the  surface  moss  or  grass-turf  and  roots  are 
removed,  and  then  the  peat  is  broken  up  by  a  simple  spade- 
plow,  in  furrows  2  inches  wide  and  8  or  10  inches  deep. 
The  broken  peat  is  repeatedly  traversed  with  wooden  har 
rows,  and  is  thus  pulverized  and  dried.  When  suitably 
dry,  it  is  carried  to  a  magazine,  where  it  is  rammed  into 
moulds  by  a  simple  stamp  of  two  hundred  pounds  weight. 
The  broken  peat  is  reduced  to  two-fifths  its  first  bulk,  and 
the  blocks  thus  formed  are  so  hard,  as  to  admit  of  cutting 
with  a  saw  or  ax  without  fracture.  They  require  no 
further  drying,  are  of  a  deep-brown  color,  with  lustrous 
surfaces,  and  their  preparation  may  go  on  in  winter  with 
the  stock  of  broken  peat,  which  is  accumulated  in  the 
favorable  weather  of  summer.  In  this  manufacture  there 
is  no  waste  of  material. 

The  peat  is  dry  enough  for  pressing  when,  after  forming 
in  the  hands  to  a  ball,  it  will  not  firmly  retain  this  shape, 
but  on  being  let  fall  to  the  ground,  breaks  to  powder. 
The  entire  cost  of  preparing  1000  peats  for  use,  or  mar 
ket,  was  2  Thalers,  or  $1.40.  Thirty  peats,  or  "  stones  "  as 
they  are  called  from  their  hardness,  have  the  bulk  of  two 
cubic  feet,  and  weigh  160  Ibs.  The  cost  of  preparing  a 
hundred  weight,  was  therefore,  (in  1859,)  four  Silver- 
groschen,  or  about  10  cents. 

The  stamp  is  of  simple  construction,  somewhat  like  a  pile- 
driver,  the  mould  and  face  of  the  ram  being  made  of  cast 
iron.  The  above  process  is  not  applicable  to  fibrous  peat. 


Berg-  un-1  Huettenmaennistfhe  Zeitung,  1859,  Nr.  26. 


PEAT   AS   FUEL.  121 

(c)     Pressing  Sot-dried  Peat. 

The  t\vo  methods  to  be  next  described,  are  similar  to 
the  last  mentioned,  save  that  the  peat  is  hot-pressed. 

Gwynne's  Method. — In  1853,  Gwynne  of  London,  pat 
ented  machinery  and  a  method  for  condensing  peat  for 
fuel.  His  process  consisted,  first,  in  rapidly  drying  and 
pulverizing  the  fresh  peat  by  a  centrifugal  machine,  or  by 
passing  between  rollers,  and  subsequent  exposure  to  heat 
in  revolving  cylinders ;  and,  second,  in  compressing  the 
dry  peat-powder  in  a  powerful  press  at  a  high  tempera 
ture,  about  180°  F.  By  this  heat  it  is  claimed,  that  the 
peat  is  not  only  thoroughly  dried,  but  is  likewise  partially 
decomposed;  bituminous  matters  being  developed,  which 
cement  the  particles  to  a  hard  dense  mass.  Gwynne's 
machinery  was  expensive  and  complicated,  and  although 
an  excellent  fuel  was  produced,  the  process  appears  not 
to  have  been  carried  out  on  the  large  scale  with  pecuniary 
success. 

A  specimen  of  so-called  "  Peat  coal "  in  the  author's 
possession,  made  in  Massachusetts  some  years  ago,  under 
Gwynne's  patent,  appears  to  consist  of  pulverized  peat, 
prepared  as  above  described ;  but  contains  an  admixture 
of  rosin.  It  must  have  been  an  excellent  fuel,  but  could 
not  at  that  time  compete  with  coal  in  this  country. 

Exter'S  Method* 

In  1856,  Exter,  of  Bavaria,  carried  into  operation  on  an 
extensive  scale,  a  plan  of  preparing  peat-fuel  in  some  re 
spects  not  unlike  the  last  mentioned  method.  Exter's 
works,  belonging  to  the  Bavarian  Government,  are  on  the 
Haspelmoor,  situated  between  Augsburg  and  Munich. 
According  to  Ruehlmann,  who  examined  them  at  the 

*  Henneberg's  Journal  fuer  Landwirthschaft,  1858,  S.  42. 

6 


122 


PEAT   AND    ITS    USES. 


command  of  the  Hanoverian  Government  in  1857,  the 
method  is  as  follows : — 1.  The 
bog  is  laid  dry  by  drains  and 
the  surface  is  cleared  of  bush 
es,  roots,  and  grass-turf,  down 
to  good  peat.  2.  The  peat  is 
broken  up  superficially  to  the 
depth  of  about  one  inch,  by  a 
gang  of  three  plows,  propelled 
by  a  portable  steam  engine. 
3.  The  peat  is  further  pulver 
ized  by  a  harrow,  drawn  by  a 
yoke  of  oxen.  4.  In  two  or 
three  days  after  harrowing, 
the  peat  is  turned  by  an  im 
plement  like  our  cultivator,  FiS-  5.— EXTER'S  DRYING  OVEN. 
this  process  being  repeated  at  suitable  intervals.  5.  The 
fine  and  air-dry  peat  is  gathered  together  by  scrapers, 

and  loaded  into 
wagons ;  then 
drawn  by  rope 
connected  with 
the  engine,  to 
the  press  or 
magazine.  6. 
If  needful,  the 
peat,  thus  col 
lected,  is  fur 
ther  pulverized 
by  passing  it 
through  tooth- 
ed  rollers.  7. 

Fig.   6.-EXTER'S  DRYING  OVEN.  The  fil!6   peat  is 

now  introduced  into  a  complicated  drying  oven,  see  figures 
5  and  6.     It  falls  through  the  opening  T,  and  is  moved  by 


PEAT   AS   FUEL.  123 

means  of  the  spirals  along  the  horizontal  floors  0,  0,  fall 
ing  from  one  to  another  until  it  emerges  at  Q.  The  floors, 
0, 0,  are  made  by  wide  and  thin  iron  chambers,  through 
which  passes  waste  steam  from  an  engine.  The  oven  is 
heated  further  by  hot  air,  which  circulates  through  the 
canals  I£,K.  The  peat  occupies  about  one  hour  in  its  pas 
sage  through  the  oven  and  falls  from  Q,  into  the  press, 
having  a  temperature  of  from  120°  to  140°  Fahrenheit. 
The  press  employed  at  Staltach  is  essentially  the  same  as 
that  now  used  :it  the  Kolbermoor,  and  figured  on  p.  125. 
It  is  a  powerful  eccentric  of  simple  construction,  and 
turns  out  continuously  40  finished  peats  per  minute.  These 
occupy  about  one-fourth  the  space  of  the  peat  before 
pressing,  the  cubic  foot  weighing  about  72  Ibs.  The  peats 
are* 7  inches  long,  3  inches  wide,  and  one  half  to  three 
quarter*  of  an  inch  thick,  each  weighing  three  quarters  of 
a  pound.  Three  presses  furnish  annually  180,000  cwt.  of 
condensed  peat,  which  is  used  exclusively  for  firing  loco 
motives.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1.14,  and  its  quality  as 
fuel  is  excellent.  Ruehlmann  estimated  its  cost,  at  Has- 
pelmoor  in  1857,  at  8j  Kreuzers,  or  a  little  more  than  6 
cents  per  cwt.,  and  calculated  that  by  adopting  certain 
obvious  improvements,  and  substituting  steam  power  for 
the  labor  of  men  and  cattle,  the  cost  might  be  reduced  to 
'6i  Kreuzers,  or  a  little  more  than  4  cents  per  cwt. 

Exter's  method  has  been  adopted  with  some  modifica 
tions  at  Kolbermoor,  near  Munich,  in  Bavaria,  at  Miskolz, 
in  Hungary,  and  also  at  the  Neustadt  Smelting  Works,  in 
Hanover.  At  the  latter  place,  however,  it  appears  to  have 
been  abandoned  for  the  reasons  that  it  could  be  applied 
only  to  the  better  kinds  of  peat ;  and  the  expense  was  there 
so  great,  that  the  finished  article  could  not  compete  with 
other  fuel  in  the  Hanoverian  markets. 

Details  of  the  mechanical  arrangements  at  present  em 
ployed  on  the  Kolbermoor,  are  as  follows  :  After  the  bog 


124: 


PEAT   ATSTD    ITS    USES. 


is  drained,  and  the  surface  cleared  of  dwarf  pines,  etc., 
and  suitably  leveled,  the  peat  is  plowed  by  steam.  This  is 
accomplished  in  a  way  which  the  annexed  cut  serves  to  il 
lustrate.  The  plot  to  be  plowed,  is  traversed  through 
the  middle  by  the  rail-way  x,y.  A  locomotive  #,  sets  in 
motion  an  endless  wire-rope,  which  moves  upon  large 

ra — a^— 


Fig.  7. 

horizontal  pulleys  0,0,  stationed  at  either  border  of  the 
land.  Four  gang  plows  5,5,  are  attached  to  the  rope,  and 
as  the  latter  is  set  in  motion,  they  break  up  the  strip  of 
peat  they  pass  over,  completely.  The  locomotive  and  the 
pulleys  are  then  moved  back,  and  the  process  is  repeated 
until  the  whole  field  has  been  plowed.  The  plows  are 
square  frames,  carrying  six  to  eight  shares  and  as  many 
coulters. 

The  press  employed  at  Kolbermoor,  is  shown  in  figs.  8  and 
9.  The  hot  peat  falls  into  the  hopper,  5,c.  The  plunger  c?, 
worked  in  the  cavity  e,  by  an  eccentric,  allows  the  latter 
to  fill  with  peat  as  it  is  withdrawn,  and  by  its  advance 
compresses  it  into  a  block.  The  blocks  m,  once  formed, 
by  their  friction  in  the  channel  e,  oppose  enough  resistance 
to  the  peat  to  effect  its  compression.  In  order  to  regulate 
this  resistance  according  to  the  varying  quality  of  the 


PEAT   AS   FUEL. 


125 


peat,  the  piece  of  metal  g,  which  hangs  on  a  pivot  at  o,  is 
depressed  or  raised,  by  the  screw  ?',  so  as  to  contract  or 


Fig.  8. — EXTER'S  PEAT  PRESS. 

enlarge  the  channel.  At  each  stroke  of  the  plunger  a 
block  is  formed,  and  when  the  channel  e  is  once  filled,  the 
peats  fall  continuously  from  its  extremity.  Their  dimen 
sions  are  7  inches  long,  3|  wide,  and  1^  thick. 

Several  presses  are  worked  by 
the  same  engine  at  the  Kolbermoor, 
each  of  which  turns  out  daily  200 
to  300  cwt.  of  peats,  which,  in 
1863,  were  sold  at  24  kreuzers 
(16  cents),  per  cwt. 

C.  Hodgson  has  patented  in 
Great  Britain  a  compressing-ram 
similar  to  Exter's,  and  works  were 
put  up  at  Derrylea,  in  Ireland, 
some  years  ago,  in  which  Exter's  process  of  manufactur 
ing  peat  fuel  appears  to  have  been  adopted. 

Elsberg^s  Process. 

Dr.  Louis  Elsberg,  of  New  York  City,  has  invented  a 
modification  of  Exter's  method,  which  appears  to  be  of 


Fig. 


-EXTER  S  PEAT 
PRESS. 


126  PEAT   AND   ITS   USES. 

great  importance.  His  experimental  machine,  wlrich  is  in 
operation  near  Belleville,  1ST.  J.,  consists  of  a  cylindrical 
pug-mill,  in  which  the  peat,  air-dried  as  in  Exter's  method, 
is  further  broken,  and  at  the  same  time  is  subjected  to  a 
current  of  steam  admitted  through  a  pipe  and  jacket  sur 
rounding  the  cylinder.  The  steamed  peat  is  then  con 
densed  by  a  pair  of  presses  similar  to  that  just  described, 
which  are  fed  directly  from  the  mill.  In  this  way  the 
complicated  drying  oven  of  Exter  is  dispensed  with. 
Elsberg  &  Co.  are  still  engaged  in  perfecting  their  ar 
rangements.  Some  samples  of  their  making  are  of  very 
excellent  quality,  having  a  density  of  1.2  to  1.3. 

The  pressing  of  air-dry  peat  only  succeeds  when  it  is 
made  warm,  and  is,  at  the  same  time,  moist.  In  Exter's 
original  process  the  peat  is  considerably  dried  in  the  ovens, 
but  on  leaving  them,  is  so  moist  as  to  bedew  the  hand 
that  is  immersed  in  it.  It  is,  in  fact,  steamed  by  the 
vaporization  of  its  own  water.  In  Elsberg's  process,  the 
air-dry  peat  is  not  further  desiccated,  but  is  made  moist 
and  warm  by  the  admission  of  hot  steam.  The  latter 
method  is  the  more  ready  and  doubtless  the  more  econom 
ical  of  the  two.  Whether  the  former  gives  a  dryer  pro 
duct  or  not,  the  author  cannot  decide.  Elsberg's  peat  oc 
curs  in  cylindrical  cakes  2  inches  broad,  and  one  incli  in 
thickness.  The  cakes  are  somewhat  cracked  upon  the 
edges,  as  if  by  contraction,  in  drying.  When  wet,  the 
surface  of  the  cakes  swells  up,  and  exfoliates  as  for  as  the 
water  has  penetrated.  In  the  fire,  a  similar  breaking 
away  of  the  surface  takes  place,  and  when  coked,  the 
coal  is  but  moderately  coherent. 

The  reasons  why  steamed  peat  admits  of  solidification 
by  pressure,  are  simply  that  the  air,  ordinarily  adhering  to 
the  fibres  and  particles,  is  removed,  and  the  fibres  them 
selves  become  softened  and  more  plastic,  so  that  pressure 
brings  them  into  intimate  contact.  The  idea  that  the  heat 


PEAT   AS    FUEL.  127 

developes  bituniinous  matters,  or  fuses  the  resins  which 
exist  in  peat,  and  that  these  cement  the  particles,  does  not 
harmonize  with  the  fact  that  the  peat,  thus  condensed, 
flakes  to  pieces  by  a  short  immersion  in  water. 

The  great  advantage  of  Exter's  and  Elsberg's  method 
consists  in  avoiding  what  most  of  the  others  require,  viz. : 
the  expensive  transportation  and  handling  of  fresh  peat, 
which  contains  80  to  90  per  cent,  of  water,  and  the  rapid 
removal  of  this  excess  of  water  before  the  manufacture. 
In  the  other  methods  the  surplus  water  must  be  slowly 
removed  during  or  after  condensation. 

Again,  enough  peat  may  be  air-dried  and  stored  during 
summer  weather,  to  supply  a  machine  with  work  during 
the  whole  year. 

Its  disadvantages  are,  that  it  requires  a  large  outlay  of 
capital  and  great  expenditure  of  mechanical  force.  Its 
product  is,  moreover,  not  adapted  for  coking. 

13. —  Condensation  without  Pressure. 

The  methods  of  condensing  peat,  that  remain  to  be 
described,  are  based  upon  radically  different  princi 
ples  from  those  already  noticed.  In  these,  little  or  no 
pressure  is  employed  in  the  operations ;  but  advantage  is 
taken  of  the  important  fact  that  when  wet  or  moist  peat 
is  ground,  cut  or  in  any  way  reduced  to  a  pulpy  or  pasty 
consistence,  with  destruction  of  the  elastic  fibres,  it  will, 
on  drying,  shrink  together  to  a  coherent  mass,  that  may 
acquire  a  density  and  toughness  much  greater  than  it  is 
possible  to  obtain  by  any  amount  of  mere  pressure. 

The  various  processes  that  remain  to  notice  are  essenti 
ally  reducible  to  two  types,  of  which  the  French  method, 
invented  by  Challeton,  and  the  German,  invented  it  ap 
pears  by  Weber,  are  the  original  representatives.  The 
former  method  is  only  applicable  to  earthy,  well-decom- 


128  PEAT   AND   ITS   USES. 

posed  peat,  containing  little  fibre.  The  latter  was  origi 
nally  applied  to  fibrous  moss-peat,  but  has  since  been 
adapted  to  all  kinds.  Other  inventors,  English,  German, 
and  American,  have  modified  {hese  methods  in  their  de 
tails,  or  in  the  construction  of  the  requisite  machinery, 
rendering  them  more  perfect  in  their  execution  and  per 
haps  more  profitable  in  their  results ;  but,  as  regards  the 
essential  principles  of  production,  or  the  quality  of  pro 
duct,  no  advance  appears  to  have  been  made  beyond  the 
original  inventors. 

(a)     Condensation  of  Earthy  Peat. 

Challetori's  Method  consists  essentially  in  destroying 
the  fibres,  and  reducing  the  peat  by  cutting  and  grinding 
with  water  to  a  pulp ;  then  slowly  removing  the  liquid, 
until  the  peat  dries  away  to  a  hard  coherent  mass.  It 
provides  also  for  the  purification  of  the  peat  from  earthy 
matters.  It  is,  in  many  respects,  an  imitation  of  the  old 
Dutch  and  Irish  mode  of  making  "hand  peat"  (Bagger- 
torf),  and  is  very  like  the  paper  manufacture  in  its  opera 
tions.  Challeton's  Works,  situated  near  Paris,  at  Menne- 
cy,  near  Montanges,  were  visited  in  1856  by  a  Commission 
of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Holstein,  consisting  of 
Drs.  Meyn  and  Luetkens,  and  also  by  Dr.  Ruehlmann,  in 
the  interest  of  the  Hanoverian  Government.  From  their 
account*  the  following  statements  are  derived. 

The  peat  at  Mennecy  comes  from  the  decay  of  grasses, 
is  black,  well  decomposed,  and  occasionally  intermingled 
with  shells  and  sand.  The  moor  is  traversed  by  canals, 
which  serve  for  the  transport  of  the  excavated  peat  in 
boats.  The  peat,  when  brought  to  the  manufactory,  is 
emptied  into  a  cistern,  which,  by  communicating  with  the 
adjacent  canal,  maintains  a  constant  level  of  water.  From 

*  Henneberg's  Journal  fuer  Landwirthschaft,  1858,  p.p.  42  and  83.  * 


PEAT   AS   FUEL.  129 

this  cistern  the  peat  is  carried  up  by  a  chain  of  buckets 
and  emptied  into  a  hopper,  where  it  is  caught  by  toothed 
cylinders  in  rapid  revolution,  and  cut  or  torn  to  pieces. 
Thence  it  passes  into  a  chamber  where  the  fine  parts  are 
separated  from  unbroken  roots  and  fibres  by  revolving 
brushes,  which  force  the  former  through  small  holes  in  the 
walls  of  the  chamber,  while  the  latter  are  swept  out 
through  a  larger  passage.  The  pulverized  peat  finally 
falls  into  a  cistern,  in  which  it  is  agitated  by  revolving 
arms.  A  stream  of  water  constantly  enters  this  vessel 
from  beneath,  while  a  chain  of  buckets  as  rapidly  carries 
off  the  peat  pulp.  All  sand,  shells,  and  other  heavy  mat 
ters,  remain  at  the  bottom  of  this  cistern. 

The  peat  pulp,  thus  purified,  flows  through  wooden 
troughs  into  a  series  of  basins,  in  which  the  peat  is  formed 
and  dried.  These  basins  are  made  upon  the  ground  by 
putting  up  a  square  frame  (of  boards  on  edge,)  about  one 
foot  deep,  and  placing  at  the  bottom  old  matting  or  a 
layer  of  flags  or  reeds.  Each  basin  is  about  a  rod  square, 
and  800  of  them  are  employed.  They  are  filled  with  the 
peat  pulp  to  the  top.  In  a  few  days  the  water  either 
filters  away  into  the  ground,  or  evaporates,  so  that  a 
soft  stratum  of  peat,  about  3  inches  in  thickness,  remains. 
Before  it  begins  to  crack  from  drying,  it  is  divided  into 
blocks,  by  pressing  into  it  a  light  trellis-like  framework, 
having  thin  partitions  that  serve  to  indent  the  peat  in 
lines  corresponding  to  the  intended  divisions.  On  further 
drying,  the  mass  separates  into  blocks  at  the  lines  thus 
impressed,  and  in  a  few  days,  they  are  ready  to  remove 
and  arrange  for  further  desiccation. 

The  finished  peats  from  Challeton's  works,  as  well  as 
those  made  by  the  same  method  near  Neuchatel,  Switzer 
land,  by  the  Messrs.  Roy,  were  of  excellent  quality,  and 
in   the  opinion  of  the   Commission   from   Holstein,   the 
6* 


130  PEAT   AND   ITS   USES. 

method  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  purification  and  con 
centration  of  the  heavy  kinds  of  peat. 

In  Holstein,  a  French  company  constructed,  and  in  185T 
worked  successfully  a  portable  machine  for  preparing  peat 
on  this  plan,  but  were  shortly  restrained  by  legal  proceed 
ings.  Of  their  later  operations  we  have  no  information. 

No  data  are  at  hand  regarding  the  cost  of  producing 
fuel  by  Challeton's  machinery.  It  is  believed,  however, 
that  his  own  works  were  unremnnerative,  and  several 
manufactories  on  his  pattern,  erected  in  Germany,  have 
likewise  proved  unprofitable.  The  principle  is,  however, 
a  good  one,  though  his  machinery  is  only  applicable  to 
earthy  or  pitchy,  and  not  to  very  fibrous  peat.  It  has 
been  elsewhere  applied  with  satisfactory  results. 

Simplified  macli'nery  for  applying  Challeton's  method 
is  in  operation  at  Langenberg,  near  Stettin,  in  Prussia.* 
The  moss-meadows  along  the  river  Oder,  near  which  Lan 
genberg  is  situated,  are  but  aafoot  or  so  higher  at  the  sur 
face  than  the  medium  level  of  this  river,  and  are  subject 
to  frequent  and  sudden  inundations,  so  that  draining  and 
partial  drying  of  the  peat  are  out  of  the  question.  The  char 
acter  of  the  peat  is  unadapted  to  cutting  by  hand,  since 
portions  of  it  are  pitchy  and  crumble  too  easily  to  form 
good  sods  ;  and  others,  usually  the  lower  layers,  at  a  depth 
of  seven  feet  or  more,  are  made  up  to  a  considerable  ex 
tent  of  quite  firm  reeds  and  flags,  having  the  consistence 
of  half  decayed  straw.  The  earthy  peat  is  manufactured 
after  Challeton's  method.  It  is  raised  with  a  steam  dredger 
of  20  horse  power,  and  emptied  into  flat  boats,  seven  in 
number,  which  are  drawn  to  the  works  by  an  endless  rope 
operated  by  horse  power.  The  works  themselves  are  situ 
ated  on  a  small  sand  hill  in  the  middle  of  the  moor,  and  com 
municate  by  canal  with  the  dredger  and  with  the  drying 

*  Dirigler's  Journal,  Oct.,  1864. 


PEAT    AS    FUEL.  131 

ground.  A  chain  of  buckets,  working  in  a  frame  45  feet 
long,  attached  by  a  horizontal  hinge  to  the  top  of  the 
machine  bouse,  reaches  over  the  dock  where  the  boats 
haul  up,  into  the  rear  end  of  the  latter ;  and,  as  the  buckets 
begin  to  raise  the  peat,  the  boat  itself  is  moved  under  the 
frame  towards  the  house,  until,  with  a  man's  assistance, 
its  entire  load  is  taken  up.  The  contents  of  one  boat  are 
six  square  yards,  with  a  depth  of  one  foot,  and  a  boat  is 
emptied  in  20  minutes  time.  Forty  to  forty-four  boat 
loads  are  thus  passed  into  the  pulverizing  machine  daily, 
by  two  chains  of  buckets. 

The  peat-mud  falls  from  the  buckets  into  a  large  wooden 
trough,  which  branches  into  two  channels,  conducting  to 
two  large  tubs  standing  side  by  side.  These  tubs  are  10 
feet  in  diameter  and  2  feet  deep,  and  are  made  of  2-inch 
plank.  Within  each  tub  is  placed  concentrically  a  cylin 
drical  sieve,  or  colander,  8  feet  in  diameter  and  2  feet 
high,  made  of  f  round  iron,  and  it  is  within  this  that  the 
peat  is  emptied.  The  peat  is  stirred  and  forced  through 
the  meshes  of  the  sieve  by  four  arms  of  a  shaft  that  re 
volves  20  times  per  minute,  the  arms  carrying  at  their  ex 
tremities  stiff  vertical  brooms,  which  rub  the  inside  of 
the  sieve. 

In  these  four  tubs  the  peat  is  pulverized  under  addition 
of  water ;  the  fine  parts  pass  the  sieves,  while  the  latter 
retain  the  coarse  fibres,  roots,  etc.  The  peat-mud  flows 
from  the  tubs  into  mills,  made  like  a  flour  mill,  but  the 
"  stones  "  constructed  of  hard  wood.  The  "  stones  "  have 
a  diameter  of  8  feet  6  inches ;  the  lower  is  8  inches  ;  the  up 
per  21  inches  thick.  The  pressure  of  the  upper  "  stone  " 
is  regulated  by  adjusting  the  level  of  the  discharging 
channel,  so  that  the  "  stone  "  may  be  more  or  less  buoyed, 
or  even  fully  floated  by  the  water  with  which  it  is  sur 
rounded. 


132  PEAT   AND   ITS   USES. 

The  peat-substance,  which  is  thus  finely  ground,  gathers 
from  the  four  mills  into  a  common  reservoir  whence  it  is 
lifted  by  a  centrifugal  pump  into  a  trough,  which  distrib 
utes  it  over  the  drying  ground. 

The  drying  ground  consists  of  the  surface  formed  by 
grading  the  sand  hill,  on  which  the  works  are  built,  and 
includes  about  30  English  acres.  This  is  divided  into 
small  plots,  each  of  which  is  enclosed  on  three  sides  with  a 
wall  of  earth,  and  on  the  fourth  side  by  boards  set  on  edge. 
Each  plot  is  surrounded  by  a  ditch  to  carry  off  water, 
and  by  means  of  portable  troughs,  the  peat  is  let  on  from 
the  main  channel.  The  peat-slime  is  run  into  these  beds 
to  the  depth  of  20  to  22  inches,  an  acre  being  covered 
daily.  After  4  to  8  days,  according  to  the  weather,  the 
peat  has  lost  so  much  water,  which  rapidly  soaks  off 
through  the  sand,  that  its  surface  begins  to  crack.  It  is 
then  thoroughly  trodden  by  men,  shod  with  boards  5 
inches  by  10  inches,  and  after  6  to  8  days  more,  it  is  cut 
with  sharp  spades  into  sods.  The  peats  are  dried  in  the 
usual  manner. 

The  works  at  Langenberg  yielded,  in  1863,  as  the  result 
of  the  operations  of  60  days  of  12  hours  each,  125,000 
cwt.  of  marketable  peat.  It  is  chiefly  employed  for  me 
tallurgical  purposes,  and  sells  at  3^  Silvergroschen,  or 
nearly  8  cents  per  cwt.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  peat 
ranges  from  0.73  to  0.90. 

Roberts'  Process. 

In  this  country  attempts  have  been  made  to  apply 
Challeton's  method.  In  1865,  Mr.  S.  Roberts,  of  Pekin, 
N,  Y.,  erected  machinery  at  that  place,  which  was  de 
scribed  in  the  "  Buffalo  Express,"  of  Nov.  17,  1865,  as 
follows :  — 

"  In  outward  form,  the  machine  was  like  a  small  frame 
house  on  Avheels,  supposing  the  smoke-stack  to  be  a  chirn- 


PEAT    AS    FUEL.  133 

ney.  The  engine  and  boiler  are  of  locomotive  style  ;  the 
engine  being  of  thirteen  horse  power.  The  principal  fea 
tures  of  the  machine  are  a  revolving  elevator  and  a  con 
veyer.  The  elevator  is  seventy-five  feet  long,  and  runs 
from  the  top  of  the  machine  to  the  ground,  where  the  peat 
is  dug  up,  placed  on  the  elevator,  carried  to  the  top  of  the 
machine,  and  dropped  into  a  revolving  wheel  that  cuts  it 
up ;  separates  from  it  all  the  coarse  particles,  bits  of  sticks, 
stones,  etc. ;  and  throws  them  to  one  side.  The  peat  is 
next  dropped  into  a  box  below,  where  water  is  passed  in, 
sufficient  to  bring  it  to  the  consistency  of  mortar.  By 
means  of  a  slide  under  the  control  of  the  engineer,  it  is 
next  sent  to  the  rear  of  the  machine,  where  the  conveyer, 
one  hundred  feet  long,  takes  it,  and  carries  it  within  two 
rods  of  the  end ;  at  which  point  the  peat  begins  to  drop 
through  to  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  about  four  or  five 
inches.  When  sufficient  has  passed  through  to  cover  the 
ground  to  the  end  of  the  conveyer, — two  rods, — the  con 
veyer  is  swung  around  about  two  feet,  and  the  same 
process  gone  through,  as  fast  as  the  ground  under  the  ele 
vator,  for  the  distance  of  two  rods  in  length  and  two  feet 
in  width  gets  covered,  the  elevator  being  moved.  At 
each  swing  of  the  elevator,  the  peat  just  spread  is  cut  in 
to  blocks  (soft  ones,  however)  by  knives  attached  to  the 
elevator.  It  generally  takes  from  three  to  four  weeks  be 
fore  it  is  ready  for  use.  It  has  to  lie  a  week  before  it  is 
touched,  after  the  knives  pass  through  it ;  when  it  is 
turned  over,  and  allowed  to  lie  another  week.  It  has  then 
to  be  taken  up,  and  put  in  a  shed,  and  within  a  week  or 
ten  days  can  be  used,  although  it  is  better  to  let  it  remain 
a  little  longer  time.  The  machine  can  spread  the  peat 
over  eighteen  square  rods  of  ground  —  taking  out  one 
square  rod  of  peat  —  without  being  moved.  After  the 
eighteen  rods  are  covered,  the  machine  is  moved  two 
rods  ahead,  enabling  it  to  again  spread  a  semicircular 


134  TEAT   AXD    ITS    USES. 

space  of  some  thirty-two  feet  in  width  by  eighteen  rods 
in  length.  The  same  power,  which  drives  the  engine, 
moves  the  machine.  It  is  estimated  by  Mr.  Roberts,  that, 
by  the  use  of  this  machine,  from  twenty  to  thirty  tons  of 
peat  can  be  turned  out  in  a  day." 

Mr.  Roberts  informs  us  that  he  is  making  (April  1866,) 
some  modifications  of  his  machinery.  He  employs  a 
revolving  digger  to  take  np  the  peat  from  the  bed,  and 
carry  it  to  the  machine.  At  the  time  of  going  to  press, 
we  do  not  learn  whether  he  regards  his  experiments  as 
leading  to  a  satisfactory  conclusion,  or  otherwise. 

Siemens'  method. 

Siemens,  Professor  of  Technology,  in  the  Agricultural 
Academy,  at  Hohenheim,  successfully  applied  the  follow 
ing  mode  of  preparing  peat  for  the  Beet  Sugar  Manufac 
tory  at  Boablingen,  near  Hohenheim,  in  the  year  1857. 
Much  of  the  peat  there  is  simply  cut  and  dried  in  the 
usual  manner.  There  is  great  waste,  however,  in  this 
process,  owing  to  the  frequent  occurrence  of  shells  and 
clay,  which  destroy  the  coherence  of  the  peat.  Besides, 
a  large  quantity  of  material  accumulates  in  the  colder 
months,  from  the  ditches  which  are  then  dug,  that  cannot 
be  worked  in  the  usual  manner  at  that  time  of  the  year. 
It  was  to  economize  this  otherwise  useless  material  that 
the  following  process  was  devised,  after  a  failure  to  em 
ploy  Challeton's  method  with  profit. 

In  the  first  place,  the  peat  was  dumped  into  a  boarded 
cistern,  where  it  was  soaked  and  worked  with  water,  until 
it  could  be  raised  by  a  chain  of  buckets  into  the  pulver 
izer. 

The  pulverization  of  the  peat  was  next  effected  by  pas 
sing  it  through  a  machine  invented  by  Siemens,  for  pulping 
potatoes  and  beets.  This  machine,  (the  same  we  suppose 


PEAT   AS    FUEL.  135 

as  that  described  and  figured  in  Otto's  Land  \virthschaft- 
licbe  Gewerbe),  perfectly  breaks  up  and  grates  the  peat 
to  a  fine  pulp,  delivers  it  in  the  consistency  of  mortar 
into  the  moulds,  made  of  wooden  frames,  with  divisions 
to  form  the  peats.  The  peat-paste  is  plastered  by  hand 
into  these  moulds,  which  are  immediately  emptied  to  fill 
again,  while  the  blocks  are  carried  away  to  the  drying 
ground  where  they  are  cured  in  the  ordinary  style  with 
out  cover. 

In  this  simple  manner  8  men  were  able  to  make  10,000 
peats  daily,  which,  on  drying,  were  considerably  denser 
and  harder  than  the  cut  peat. 

The  peat  thus  prepared,  cost  about  one-third  more  than 
the  cut  peat.  Siemens  reckoned,  this  greater  cost  would 
be  covered  by  its  better  heating  effect,  and  its  ability  to 
withstand  transportation  without  waste  by  crumbling. 

(b)     Condensation  of  fibrous  peat. 

Weber's  method. 

At  Staltach,  in  Southern  Bavaria,  Weber  has  established 
an  extensive  peat  works,  of  which  Vogel  has  given  a  cir 
cumstantial  account.*  The  peat  at  Staltach  is  very  light 
and  fibrous,  but  remarkably  free  from  mineral  matters, 
containing  less  than  2 per  cent,  of  ash  in  the  perfectly  dry 
substance.  The  moor  is  large,  (475  acres),  and  the  peat 
is  from  12  to  20  feet  in  depth.  The  preparation  consists 
in  converting  the  fresh  peat  into  pulp  or  paste,  forming  it 
into  moulds  and  drying  it ;  at  first  by  exposure  to  the 
air  at  ordinary  temperature,  and  finally,  by  artificial  heat, 
in  a  drying  house  constructed  for  the  purpose. 

The  peat  is  cut  out  by  a  gang  of  men,  in  large  masses, 
cleared  of  coarse  roots  and  sticks,  and  pushed  on  tram 

*  Dingler's  Polytechnisclies  Journal,  Bd.  152,  S.  272.  See  also,  Knapp, 
Lehrbuch  tier  Chemischeii  Technologic.  3te  Auflage,  1.,  167. 


136 


PEAT    AND    ITS    USES. 


wagons  to  the  works,  which  are  situated  lower  than  the 
surface  of  the  bog.  Arrived  at  the  works,  the  peat  is 
carried  upon  an  inclined  endless  apron,  up  to  a  platform 
10  feet  high,  where  a  workman  pushes  it  into  the  pulver 
izing  mill,  the  construction  of  which  is  seen  from  the  ac- 
cut.  The  vertical  shaft  b  is  armed  with 


Fi<£.  10. — WEBER'S  PEAT  MILL. 

sickle-shaped  knives,  t?,  which  revolve  between  and  cut 
contrary  to  similar  knives  c,  fixed  to  the  interior  of  the 
vessel.  The  latter  is  made  of  iron,  is  3£  feet  high,  2  feet 
across  at  top  and  1^  feet  wide  at  the  bottom.  From  the 
base  of  the  machine  at  g,  the  perfectly  pulverized  or 
minced  peat  issues  as  a  stiff  paste.  If  the  peat  is  dry,  a 
little  water  is  added.  Vogel  found  the  fresh  peat  to  con 
tain  90  per  cent,  of  water,  the  pulp  92  per  cent.  Weber's 
machine,  operated  by  an  engine  of  10  horse  power,  work 
ing  usually  to  half  its  capacity  only,  reduced  400  cubic  feet 
of  peat  per  hour,  to  the  proper  consistency  for  moulding. 
Three  modes  of  forming  the  paste  into  blocks  have  been 
practiced.  One  was  in  imitation  of  that  employed  with 
mud-peat.  The  paste  was  carried  by  railway  to  sheds, 


PEAT    AS    FUEL.  137 

where  it  was  filled  by  hand  into  moulds  17  inches  by  7J  by 
5|  inches,  and  put  upon  frames  to  dry.  These  sheds  oc 
cupied  together  52,000  square  feet,  and  contained  at  once 
200,000  peats.  The  peats  remained  here  8  to  14  days  or 
more,  according  to  the  weather,  when  they  were  either  re 
moved  to  the  drying  house,  or  piled  in  large  stacks  to  dry 
slowly  out-of-doors.  The  sheds  could  be  filled  and  emp 
tied  at  least  12  times  each  season,  and  since  they  protected 
from  light  frosts,  the  season  began  in  April  and  lasted 
until  November. 

The  second  mode  of  forming  the  peat  was  to  run  off 
the  pulp  into  large  and  deep  pits,  excavated  in  the  ground, 
and  provided  with  drains  for  carrying  off  water.  The 
water  soaked  away  into  the  soil,  and  in  a  few  weeks  of 
good  weather,  the  peat  was  stiff  enough  to  cut  out  into 
blocks  by  the  spade,  having  lost  20  to  25  per  cent,  of  its 
water,  and  15  per  Gent,  of  its  bulk.  The  blocks  were  re 
moved  to  the  drying  sheds,  and  set  upon  edge  in  the 
spaces  left  by  the  shrinking  of  the  peats  made  by  the 
other  method.  The  working  of  the  peat  for  the  pits 
could  go  on,  except  in  the  coldest  weather,  as  a  slight 
covering  usually  sufficed  to  protect  them  from  frost. 

Both  of  these  methods  have  been  given  up  as  too  ex 
pensive,  and  are  replaced,  at  present,  by  the  following : 

In  the  third  method  the  peat-mass  falls  from  the  mill  in 
to  a  hopper,  which  directs  it  between  the  rolls  A  JB  of 
fig.  11,  (see  next  page).  The  roll  A  has  a  series  of 
boxes  on  its  periphery  m  m,  with  movable  bottoms  which 
serve  as  moulds.  The  peat  is  carried  into  these  boxes  by 
the  rolls  c  c.  The  iron  projections  n  n  of  the  large  roll 
_Z?,  which  work  cog-like  into  the  boxes,  compress  the  peat 
gently  and,  at  last,  the  eccentric  p  acting  upon  the  pin  z, 
forces  up  the  movable  bottom  of  the  box  and  throws  out 
the  peat-block  upon  an  endless  band  of  cloth,  which  car 
ries  it  to  the  drying  place. 


138 


PEAT   AND   ITS    USES. 


The  peats  which  are  dried  at  first  underJMlfand  there 
fore  slowly,  shrink  more  evenly  and  to  ^Hfater  extent 
than  those  which  are  allowed  to  dry  rapidly^  The  latter 
become  cracked  upon  the  surface  and  have  cavities  inter 
nally,  which  the  former  do  not.  This  fact  is  of  great  im 
portance  for  the  density  of  the  peat,  for  its  usefulness  in  pro 
ducing  intense  heat,  and  its  power  to  withstand  carriage. 


I 


Fig.  11  —WEBER'S  PEAT  MOULDING  MACHINE. 

The  complete  drying  is,  on  the  other  hand,  by  this 
method,  a  much  slower  process,  since  the  dense,  fissure- 
less  exterior  of  the  peats  hinders  the  escape  of  water  from 
within.  It  requires,  in  fact,  several  months  of  ordinary 
drying  for  the  removal  of  the  greater  share  of  the  water, 
and  at  the  expiration  of  this  time  they  are  still  often  moist 
in  the  interior. 


PEAT   AS   FUEL.  139 

Artificial  drying  is  therefore  employed  to  produce  the 
most  compact,  driest,  and  best  fuel. 

Weber's  Drying  house  is  120  feet  long  and  46  feet 
wide  Four  large  flues  traverse  the  whole  length  of  it, 
and  are  heated  with  the  pine  roots  and  stumps  which 
abound  in  the  moor.  These  flues  are  enclosed  in  brick 
work,  leaving  a  narrow  space  for  the  passage  of  air  from 
without,  which  is  heated  by  the  flues,  and  is  discharged  at 
various  openings  in  the  brick-work  into  the  house  itself, 
where  the  peat  is  arranged  on  frames.  The  warm  nir  be 
ing  light,  ascends  through  the  peat,  charges  itself  with 
moisture,  thereby  becomes  heavier  and  falls  to  the  floor, 
wrhence  it  is  drawn  off  by  flues  of  sheet  zinc  that  pass  up 
through  the  roof.  This  house  holds  at  once  300,000  peats, 
which  are  heated  to  130°  to  145°  F.,  and  require  10  to  14 
days  for  drying. 

The  effect  of  the  hot  air  upon  the  peat  is,  in  the  first 
place,  to  soften  and  cause  it  to  swell ;  it,  however,  shortly 
begins  to  shrink  again  and  dries  away  to  masses  of  great 
solidity.  It  becomes  almost  horny  in  its  character,  can 
be  broken  only  by  a  heavy  blow,  and  endures  the  rough 
est  handling  without  detriment.  Its  quality  as  fuel  is  cor 
respondingly  excellent. 

The  effects  of  the  mechanical  treatment  and  drying  on 
the  Staltach  peat,  are  seen  from  the  subjoined  figures: 

Specific        Lbs.  per  Cubic          Per  rent,  of 
Gravity.  Foot.  Water. 

Peat,  raised  and  dried  in  usual  way,  0.24     H .18  to  20 

Machine-worked  and  hot-dried  0.65 35     12 

Yogel  estimates  the  cost  of  peat  made  by  "Weber's 
method  at  5  Kreuzers  per  (T)ivarian)  hundred  weight, 
while  that  of  ordinary  peat  is  13]j  Kreuzers.  Schrceder,  in 
his  comparison  of  machine-wrought  and  ordinary  peat,  de 
monstrates  that  the  latter  can  be  produced  much  cheaper 
than  was  customary  in  Bavaria,  in  1859,  by  a  better  sys 
tem  of  labor. 


140 


PEAT   AND   ITS   USES. 


Weber's  method  was  adopted  with  some  improvements 
in  an  extensive  works  built  in  1860,  by  the  Government  of 
Baden,  at  Willaringen,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  as  much 
fuel  as  possible,  during  the  course  of  a  lease  that  expired 
with  the  year  1865. 

Gysser^s  method* — Rudolph  Gysser,  of  Freiburg,  who 


Fig.  12. — GEYSSEIi'S   PEAT   MACHINE. 

was  charged  with  the  erection  of  the  works  at  Willarin 
gen  just  alluded  to,  invented  a  portable  hand-machine  on 

*  Der  Torf;    seine  Bildung   und   Bereitungsweise,   von  Rudolph   Gysser, 
Weimar,  1864. 


PEAT   AS   FUEL. 


141 


the  general  plan  of  Weber,  but  with  important  improve 
ments  ;  and  likewise  omitted  and  varied  some  details  of 
the  manufacture,  bringing  it  within  the  reach  of  parties 
of  small  means. 

In  the  accompanying  cuts,  (figs.  12,  13,  and  14),  are 
given  an  elevation  of  Gysser's  machine,  together  with  a 
bird's-eye  view  and  vertical  section  of  the  interior 
mechanism. 

It  consists  of  a  cast  iron  funnel  c  d  i  of  the  elevation,  (fig. 
12),  having  above  a  sheet  iron  hopper  a  b  to  receive  the 
peat,  and  within  a  series  of  six  knives  fastened  in  a  spiral, 


Fig.  13. 


Fig.  14. 


and  curving  outwards  and  downwards,  (figs.  13  and  14) ; 
another  series  of  three  similar  knives  is  affixed  to  a  verti 
cal  shaft,  which  is  geared  to  a  crank  and  turned  by  a  man 
standing  on  the  platform  j  k ;  these  revolving  knives 
curve  upwards  and  cut  between  and  in  a  direction  con 
trary  to  the  fixed  knives ;  below  the  knives,  and  affixed  to 
the  shaft  a  spiral  plate  of  iron  and  a  scraper  m,  (fig.  13), 
serve  to  force  the  peat,  which  has  been  at  once  minced  and 
carried  downwards  by  the  knives,  as  a  somewhat  com 
pressed  mass  through  the  lateral  opening  at  the  bottom 
of  the  funnel,  whence  it  issues  as  a  continuous  hollow 


142  PEAT    AND    ITS    USES. 

cylinder  like  drain-tile,  having  a  diameter  of  four  inches. 
The  iron  cone  £,  held  in  the  axis  of  the  opening  by  the 
thin  and  sharp-edged  support  g  A,  forms  the  bore  of  the 
tube  of  peat  as  it  issues.  Two  men  operate  the  machine ; 
one  turning  the  crank,  which,  by  suitable  gearing,  works 

. --•;— =|  tne  shaft,  and  the  other  digging  and 

y  a  throwing  in  the  peat.     The  mass,  as  it 

Fi."-  15-  issues  from  the  machine,  is  received  by 

two  boys  alternately,  who  hold  below  the  opening  a  semi- 
cylindrical  tin-plate  shovel,  (fig.  15),  of  the  width  and 
length  of  the  required  peats,  and  break  or  rather  wipe 
them  off,  when  they  reach  the  length  of  14  inches. 

The  formed  peats  are  dried  in  light,  cheap  and  portable 
houses,  Fig.  17,  each  of  which  consists  of  six  rectangular 
frames  supported  one  above  another,  and  covered  by  a 
light  roof.  The  frames,  Fig.  16,  have  square  posts  at  each 
corner  like  a  bedstead,  and  are  made  by  nailing  light 
strips  to  these  posts.  The  tops  of  these  posts  are  obtusely 
beveled  to  an  edge,  and  at 
the  bottom  they  are  notch 
ed  to  correspond.  'The 
direction  of  the  edges  and 
of  the  notches  in  two  dia 
gonally  opposite  posts,  is 
at  right  angles  to  that  of  Fig.  16. 

the  other  two.  By  this  construction  the  frames,  being  of 
the  same  size,  when  placed  above  each  other,  fit  together 
by  the  edges  and  notches  of  their  posts  into  a  structure 
that  cannot  be  readily  overturned.  The  upper  frame  has 
a  light  shingled  roof,  which  completes  the  house.  Each 
frame  has  transverse  slats,  cast  in  plaster  of  Paris,  20  in 
number,  which  support  the  peats.  The  latter  being  tu 
bular,  dry  more  readily,  uniformly,  and  to  a  denser  con 
sistence  than  they  could  otherwise. 

The  machine  being  readily  set  up  where  the  peat  is  ex- 


PEAT  AS   FTJEL. 


143 


cavated,  the  labor  of  transporting  the  fresli  and  water- 
soaked  material  is  greatly  reduced.  The  drying-frames 
are  built  up  into  bouses  as  fast  as  they  are  filled  from  the 
machine.  They  can  be  set  up  anywhere  without  difficulty, 
require  no  leveling  of  the  ground,  and,  once  filled,  no 
labor  in  turning  or  stacking  the  peats  is  necessary ;  while 
the  latter  are  insured  against  damage  from  rain.  These 
advantages,  Gysser  claims,  more  than  cover  their  cost. 


Fig  V 


The  daily  production  of  a  machine  operated  by  two 
men  with  the  assistance  of  one  or  two  boys,  is  2500  to 
8000  peats,  which,  on  drying,  have  9|  to  10  inches  of 
length,  and  2£  in  diameter,  and  weigh,  on  the  average, 
one  pound  each. 


144 


PEAT    AND    ITS    USES. 


(c)  —  Condensation   of  peat    of  all  kinds, 
method  with  modified  machinery. 


Weber's 


Schlickey  serfs  Machine.* — This  machine  has  been  in 
use  in  Germany  since  1860,  in  the  preparation  of  peat. 
It  appears  to  have  been  originally  constructed  for  the 
working  and  moulding  of  clay  for  making  bricks.  The 
principle  of  its  operation  is  identical  with  that  of  Weber's 
process.  The  peat  is  finely  pulverized,  worked  into  a 
homogenous  mass,  and  moulded  into  suitable  forms.  Like 


Fig.  18. — SCHLICKEYSEN'S  PEAT  MILL. 

Gysser's  machine,  it  forces  the  peat  under  some  pressure 
through  a  nozzle,  or,  in  the  larger  kinds  through  several 
nozzles,  whence  it  issues  in  a  continuous  block  or  pipe  that  is 
cut  off  in  proper  lengths,  either  by  hand  or  by  mechanism 
It  consists  of  a  vertical  cylinder,  through  the  axis  of  which 
revolves  a  shaft,  whereon  are  fastened  the  blades,  whose 
edges  cut  and  whose  winding  figure  forces  down  the  peat. 
The  blades  are  arranged  nearly,  but  not  exactly,  in  a  true 
spiral ;  the  effect  is  therefore  that  they  act  unequally  up- 

*  Dingler's  Journal,  Bd.  165,  S.  184. ;  und  Bd.  172,  S.  333. 


PEAT    AS   FUEL.  145 

on  the  mass,  and  thus  mix  and  divide  it  more  perfectly. 
No  blades  or  projections  are  affixed  to  the  interior  of  the 
cylinder.  Above,  where  the  peat  enters  into  a  flaring 
hopper,  is  a  scraper,  that  prevents  adhesion  to  the  sides 
and  gives  downward  propulsion  to  the  peat.  The  blades 
are,  by  this  construction,  very  strong,  and  not  liable  to  in 
jury  from  small  stones  or  roots,  and  eifectually  reduce  the 
toughest  and  most  compact  peat. 

Furthermore,  addition  of  water  is  not  only  unnecessary 
in  any  case,  but  the  peat  may  be  advantageously  air- 
dried  to  a  considerable  extent  before  it  enters  the  machine. 
Wet  peat  is,  indeed,  worked  with  less  expenditure  of 
power ;  but  the  moulded  peats  are  then  so  soft  as  to  re 
quire  much  care  in  the  handling,  and  must  be  spread  out 
in  single  courses,  as  they  will  not  bear  to  be  placed  one 
upon  another.  Peat,  that  is  somewhat  dry,  though  re 
quiring  more  power  to  work,  leaves  the  machine  in  blocks 
that  can  be  piled  up  on  edge  and  upon  each  other,  six  or 
eight  high,  without  difficulty,  and  require,  of  course,  less 
time  for  curing. 

The  cut,  (fig.  18),  represents  one  of  Schlickeysen's  port 
able  peat-mills,  with  elevator  for  feeding,  from  which  an 
idea  of  the  pulverizing  arrangements  may  be  gathered. 

In  Livonia,  near  Pernau,  according  to  Leo,  two  of 
Schlickeysen's  machines,  No.  6,  were  put  in  operation  up 
on  a  purely  fibrous  peat.  They  were  driven  by  an  engine 
of  12  horse-power.  The  peat  was  plowed,  once  harrow 
ed,  then  carted  directly  to  the  hopper  of  the  machine. 
These  two  machines,  with  26  men  and  4  horses,  produced 
daily  60,000  peats  =  7500  cubic  feet.  100  cubic  feet  of 
these  peats  were  equal  in  heating  effect  to  130  cubic  feet  of 
fir-wood,  and  cost  but  two-thirds  as  much.  The  peats  were 
extremely  hard,  and  dried  in  a  few  days  sufficiently  for 
use.  In  1864,  five  large  Schlickeysen  machines  were  in 
operation  at  one  establishment  at  St.  Miskolz,  in  Hungary. 
7 


146  PEAT   AND    ITS    USES. 

The  smaller  sizes  of  Schlickeysen's  machine  are  easily 
portable,  and  adapted  for  horse  or  hand-power. 

Leavitfs  Peat-condensing  and  Moulding  Mill.* — In 
this  country,  Mr.  T.  H.  Leavitt,  of  Boston,  has  patented 
machinery,  which  is  in  operation  at  East  Lexington, 
Mass.,  at  the  works  of  the  Boston  Peat  Company.  The 
process  is  essentially  identical  with  that  of  Weber,  the 
hot-drying  omitted.  The  fresh  peat  is  pulverized  or  cut 
fine,  moulded  into  blocks,  and  dried  on  light  frames  in 
the  open  air.  The  results  claimed  by  Mr.  Leavitt,  indi 
cate,  that  his  machine  is  very  efficacious. 

It  consists,  principally,  of  a  strong  box  or  cistern,  three 
feet  in  diameter,  and  six  feet  high,  the  exterior  of  which, 
with  its  gearing,  is  shown  in  figure  19.  The  mill  is 
adapted  to  be  driven  by  a  four  horse-power  engine. 

"The  upper  portion  of  the  box  is  divided  by  a  series  of 
horizontal  partitions,  the  upper  ones  being  open  lattice 
work,  and  the  lower  ones  perforated  with  numerous  holes. 
The  upright  shaft,  which  rotates  in  the  centre  of  the  box, 
carries  a  series  of  arms  or  blades,  extending  alternately 
on  opposite  sides,  and  as  these  revolve,  they  cut  the  peat, 
and  force  it  through  the  openings  in  the  diaphragms. 
The  lower  portion  of  the  box,  in  place  of  complete  parti 
tions,  has  a  series  of  corrugated  shelves  extending  alter 
nately  from  opposite  sides,  and  the  peat  is  pressed  and 
scraped  from  these  by  a  series  of  arms  adapted  to  the 
work.  By  this  series  of  severe  operations  the  air-bubbles 
are  expelled  from  the  peat,  and  it  is  reduced  to  a  homo 
geneous  paste.  When  it  arrives  at  the  bottom  of  the 
box,  it  is  still  further  compressed  by  the  converging  sides 
of  the  hopper,  and  it  is  received  in  light  moulds  which  are 
carried  on  an  endless  belt."  Mr.  Leavitt  has  patented  the 

*  Scientific  American.  Feb.  10,  1S66  ;  also.  Facts  about  Peat  as  Fuel,  by  T 
H.  Leavitt,  2d  Ed.,  Boston,  p.  33. 


PEAT   AS    FCIEL. 


147 


use  of  powdered  peat  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the 
prepared  peat  from  adhering  to  the  moulds. 

This  mill,  it  is  asserted,  will  condense  40  tons  of  crude 
peat  daily,  which,  at  Lexington,  is  estimated  to  yield  10 
to  14  tons  of  dry  merchantable  fuel.  The  cost  of  pro- 


Fig  19.— LEAVITT'S  PEAT  MILL. 

ducing  the  latter  is  asserted  to  be  less  than  $2.00  per 
ton;  while  its  present  value,  in  Boston,  is  $10  per  ton. 
It  requires  seven  men,  three  boys,  and  two  horses  to  dig, 
cart,  mill,  and  spread  the  peat.  The  machine  costs  $600, 


148  PEAT    AND    ITS    USES. 

the  needful  buildings,  engine,  etc.,  from  $2000  to  $3000. 
The  samples  of  peat,  manufactured  by  this  machine,  are 
of  excellent  quality.  The  drying  in  the  open  air  is  said 
to  proceed  with  great  rapidity,  eight  or  ten  days  being 
ordinarily  sufficient  in  the  summer  season.  The  dry  peat, 
at  Lexington,  occupies  one-fourth  the  bulk,  and  has  one- 
fourth  to  one-third  the  weight  of  the  raw  material ;  the 
latter,  as  we  gather,  being  by  no  means  saturated  with 
water,  but  well  drained,  and  considerably  dry,  before 
milling. 

Ashcroft  &  Betteley's  Machinery. 

The  American  Peat  Company,  of  Boston,  are  the  own 
ers  of  five  patents,  taken  out  by  Messrs.  Ashcroft  &  Bet- 
teley,  for  peat  machinery.  They  claim  to  "make  fuel 
equal  to  the  best  English  Cannel  coal,"  and  really  do 
make  a  very  good  peat,  though  with  a  rather  complicated 
apparatus.  The  following  statement  is  derived  from  the 
circular  issued  by  the  company.  The  machinery  consists 
of  the  following  parts  :  — 

First. — TRITURATING  MACHINE — 36  inches  diameter,  4 
feet  6  inches  high,  with  arms  both  on  the  inside  of  this 
cylinder  and  on  the  upright  revolving  shaft.  In  the  bot 
tom  of  the  cylinder  or  tub  a  large  slide  gate  is  fitted  to 
work  with  a  lever,  so  that  the  peat  may  be  discharged, 
at  pleasure,  into  the  Combing  Machine,  which  is  placed 
directly  under  this  Triturator. 

Second. — COMBING  MACHINE  —  Semi-circular  vessel  6 
feet  long  and  3  feet  6  inches  in  diameter.  Inside,  a  shaft 
is  placed,  which  is  provided  with  fingers,  placed  one  inch 
apart ;  the  fingers  to  be  20  inches  long,  so  as  to  reach 
within  2  inches  of  the  bottom  and  sides  of  this  vessel. 
Another  shaft,  of  the  same  size  and  dimensions,  is  placed 
at  an  angle  of  45°,  26  inches  from  the  first  shaft,  with 
arms  of  the  same  dimensions  placed  upon  this  shaft,  with 


PEAT   AS    FUEL.  149 

the  same  spaces,  and  so  placed  that  this  set  of  arms  pass 
between  the  first  set,  both  shafts  revolving  in  the  same 
direction;  the  second  shaft  mentioned  being  driven  at 
double  the  speed  of  the  first.  At  the  bottom  of  this 
Combing  Machine  is  to  be  fixed  a  gate,  to  be  operated  by 
a  lever,  to  deliver,  at  pleasure,  the  cleansed  peat  into  the 
Manipulator  or  Kneeding  Machine. 

Third. — MANIPULATOR. —  A  Tube  of  iron  7  feet  long 
and  16  inches  diameter,  fitted  with  a  shaft,  with  flanges 
upon  it,  to  gain  6  inches  in  each  revolution. 

Fourth. — CONVEYOR. — This  Conveyor,  to  be  made  with 
two  endless  chains  and  buckets  of  iron,  with  a  driving 
shaft.  The  hopper,  to  receive  the  peat  when  first  taken 
from  the  bog,  to  be  placed  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  so  that  the  top  edge  of  the  hopper  may  be  level 
with  the  surface,  that  the  peat  may  be  dumped  from  the 
car  by  which  it  is  taken  from  the  bog,  and  carried  to  the 
hopper  without  hand  labor ;  and  this  conveyor  to  be  so 
arranged  that  the  peat  will  be  delivered  into  the  Tritu- 
rator  without  hand  labor. 

Fifth. — CONVEYOR. — Another  conveyor,  precisely  like 
the  one  above  described,  is  to  be  placed  so  as  to  convey 
the  peat  from  the  Manipulator  into  the  Tank  without  hand 
labor. 

Sixth. — TANK. — A  tank  35  feet  high  and  15  feet  in  di 
ameter;  the  bottom  of  this  tank  is  made  sloping  to 
wards  the  sides,  at  an  angle  of  65°,  and  is  covered  with 
sole  tile  or  drain  tile,  and  the  entire  inside  of  this  tank  is 
also  ribbed  with  these  tile;  the  ends  of  these  pipes  of  tile 
being  left  open,  so  that  the  water  which  percolates  through 
the  pores  of  the  tile,  by  the  pressure  of  the  column  of 
peat,  will  pass  out  at  the  bottom,  through  the  false  floor 
of  the  tank  into  the  drain,  and  the  solid  peat  is  retained  in 
the  tank.  A  worm  is  fixed  in  the  bottom  of  this  tank, 
which  is  driven  by  machinery,  which  forces  out  the  peat 


150  PEAT   AND    ITS    USES. 

in  the  form  of  brick,  which  are  cut  to  any  length,  and 
stacked  up  in  sheds,  for  fuel,  after  it  is  fully  dried  by  the 
air. 

Versmann's  Machine.*  —  This  machine,  see  Pig.  20, 
was  invented  by  a  German  engineer,  in  London,  and  Avas 
patented  there  in  Sept.,  1861.  It  consists  of  a  funnel  or 
hollow  cone  #,  of  boiler-plate,  from  one  to  two  feet  in 
diameter  at  top,  and  perforated  with  200  to  300  small 
holes  per  square  foot  of  surface,  within  which  rapidly  re- 


ig.  20.—  VEKSMANN'S  PEAT  PULVERIZER. 


volves  an  iron  cone  a,  carrying  on  its  circumference  two 
spiral  knives.  The  peat  thrown  in  at  the  top  of  the  fun 
nel  is  carried  down  by  the  knives,  and  at  once  cut  or 
broken  and  forced  in  a  state  of  fine  division  through  the 
holes  of  the  funnel,  as  through  a  colander.  The  fine  peat 
collects  on  the  inclined  bottom  of  the  chamber  d,  whence 
it  is  carried  by  means  of  Archimedean  screws  to  a  mould 
ing  machine.  The  coarse  stuff  that  escapes  pulverization 
falls  through  e  into  the  cavity  c.  It  may  be  employed  as 
fuel  for  the  engine,  or  again  put  through  the  machine 


*  Dingler's  Journal,  Bd.  168,  S.  306,  und  Bd.  172,  S.  332. 


PEAT    AS    FUEL.  151 

This  machine  effects  .1  more  perfect  pulverization  of  the 
peat,  than  any  other  hitherto  described.  This  extreme 
division  is,  however,  unnecessary  to  the  perfection  of  the 
product,  and  is  secured  at  great  expense  of  power. 
Through  the  opening  at  the  bottom  of  the  funnel,  much 
unpulverized  peat  finds  its  way,  which  must  be  continu 
ally  returned  to  the  machine.  Again,  stones,  entering  the 
funnel,  are  likely  to  break  or  damage  the  spiral  knives, 
which  bear  close  to  the  walls  of  the  funnel. 

The  pulverized  peat  must  be  moulded  by  hand,  or  by  a 
separate  instrument. 

Bucldantfs  Machine*  is  identical  in  principle  with 
Yersmann's,  and  in  construction  differs  simply  in  the  fact 
of  the  interior  cone  having  spiral  grooves  instead  of  spiral 
knives.  This  gives  greater  simplicity  and  durability  to 
the  machine.  It  appears,  however,  to  require  too  much 
power  to  work  it,  and  can  hardly  equal  other  machines  in 
the  quantity  of  product  it  will  deliver  for  a  given  expendi 
ture.  The  ground  peat  yielded  by  it,  must  be  moulded 
by  hand,  or  by  other  machinery.  This  machine,  we  un 
derstand,  has  been  tried  near  Boston,  and  abandoned  as 
uneconomical. 

The  machines  we  have  described  are  by  no  means  all 
that  have  been  proposed  and  patented.  They  include, 
however,  so  the  author  believes,  all  that  have  been  put  in 
to  actual  operation,  at  the  date  of  this  writing,  or  that 
present  important  peculiarities  of  construction. 

The  account  that  has  been  given  of  them  will  serve  to 
illustrate  what  mechanism  has  accomplished  hitherto  in 
the  manufacture  of  peat-fuel,  and  may  save  the  talent  of 
the  American  inventor  from  wasting  itself  on  what  is  al 
ready  in  use,  or  having  been  tried,  has  been  found  want 
ing.  At  present,  very  considerable  attention  is  devoted  to 

*  Described  in  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  1860,  p.  437. 


152  PEAT   AND    ITS    USES. 

the  subject.  Scarcely  a  week  passes  without  placing  one 
or  more  Peat-mill  patents  on  record.  In  this  treatise  our 
business  is  with  what  has  been  before  the  public  in  a  more 
or  less  practical  way,  and  it  would,  therefore,  be  useless 
to  copy  the  specifications  of  new,  and  for  the  most  part 
untried  patents,  which  can  be  found  in  the  files  of  our  me 
chanical  Journals. 

14.     Artificial  Drying  of  Peat. 

As  we  have  seen,  air-dry  peat  contains  20  to  30  and 
may  easily  contain  50  per  cent,  of  water,  and  the  best  hot- 
made  machine  peat  contains  15  per  cent.  When  peat  is 
used  as  fuel  in  ordinary  furnaces,  this  water  must  be  evap 
orated,  and  in  this  process  a  large  amount  of  heat  is  con 
sumed,  as  is  well  understood.  It  is  calculated,  that  the 
temperature  which  can  be  produced  in  perfectly  burning 
full-dried  peat,  compares  with  that  developed  in  the  com 
bustion  of  peat  containing  water,  as  follows :  — 

Pyrornetric  effect  of  perfectly  dry  pe;it 4000°  F. 

"  "  peat  with  30  per  cent,  of  water 3240°  " 

'  "  50  "         2848°  " 

But,  furthermore,  moist  or  air-dried  peat  does  not  burn 
in  ordinary  furnaces,  except  with  considerable  waste,  as  is 
evident  from  the  smokiness  of  its  flame.  When  air-dried 
peat  is  distilled  in  a  retort,  a  heavy  yellow  vapor  escapes 
for  some  time  after  the  distillation  begins,  which,  obvious 
ly,  contains  much  inflammable  matter,  but  which  is  so 
mixed  and  diluted  with  steam  that  it  will  not  burn  at  all, 
or  but  imperfectly.  It  is  obvious  then,  that  when  a  high 
temperature  is  to  be  attained,  anhydrous  or  full-dried 
peat  is  vastly  superior  to  that  which  has  simply  been  cured 
in  the  open  air. 

Notice  has  already  been  made  of  Weber's  drying- 
house,  the  use  of  which  is  an  essential  part  of  his  system 
of  producing  peat-fuel.  Various  other  arrangements  have 


PEAT   AS    FUEL.  153 

been  proposed  from  time  to  time,  for  accomplishing  the  same 
object.  It  appears,  however,  that  in  most  cases  the  antici 
pations  regarding  their  economy  have  not  been  fully  re 
alized.  It  is  hardly  probable,  that  artificially  dried  peat 
can  be  employed  to  advantage  except  where  waste  heat 
is  utilized  in  the  operation. 

A  point  of  the  utmost  importance  in  reference  to  the 
question  of  drying  peat  by  artificial  warmth  is  this,  viz. : 
Although  the  drying  may  be  carried  so  far  as  to  remove 
the  whole  of  the  water,  and  produce  an  absolutely  dry 
fuel,  the  peat  absorbs  moisture  from  the  air  again  on  ex 
posure  ;  so  that  drying  to  less  than  15  per  cent  of  water  is 
of  no  advantage,  unless  the  peat  is  to  be  used  immediately, 
or  within  a  few  days.  The  employment  of  highly  dried 
peat  is  consequently  practicable  only  for  smelting-works, 
locomotives,  and  manufacturing  establishments,  where  it 
may  be  consumed  as  fast  as  it  is  produced. 

A  fact  likewise  to  be  regarded  is,  that  artificial  drying 
is  usually  inapplicable  to  fresh  peat.  The  precautions  need 
ful  in  curing  peat  have  already  been  detailed.  Above  all, 
slow  drying  is  necessary,  in  order  that  the  blocks  shrink 
uniformly,  without  cracking  and  warping  in  such  a  way  as 
to  seriously  injure  their  solidity  and  usefulness.  In  general, 
peat  must  be  air-dried  to  a  considerable  extent  before  it  can 
be  kiln-dried  to  advantage.  If  exposed  to  dry  artificial 
heat,  when  comparatively  moist,  a  hard  crust  is  formed  ex 
ternally,  which  greatly  hinders  subsequent  desiccation.  At 
the  same  time  this  crust,  contracting  around  the  moist  inte 
rior,  becomes  so  rifted  and  broken,  that  the  ultimate  shrink 
age  and  condensation  of  the  mass  is  considerably  less  than 
it  would  have  been  had  the  drying  proceeded  more  slowly. 

Besides  Weber's  drying  oven,  the  fuel  for  firing  which 
is  derived  without  cost  from  the  stumps  and  roots  of  trees 
that  are  abundant  on  the  moor,  at  Staltach,  and  which 
7* 


15  i 


TEAT    AND    ITS    USES. 


.ire  thus  conveniently  disposed  of,  we  have  briefly  to  no 
tice  several  other  drying  kilns  with  regard  to  all  of 
which,  however,  it  must  be  remarked,  that  they  can  only 
be  employed  with  profit,  by  the  use  of  waste  heat,  or,  as 
at  Staltach,  of  fuel  that  is  comparatively  worthless  for 
other  purposes. 

The  Peat  Kilns  employed  at  Lippitzbnch,  in  Carinthia, 
and  at  Keustadt,  in  Hanover,  are  of  the  kind  shown  in 


Fig.   21. — CARIXTIIIAX  PEAT  DRYING  KILN. 

fig.  21.  The  peat  with  which  the  main  chamber  is  filled, 
is  heated  directly  by  the  hot  gases  that  arise  from  a  fire 
made  in  the  fire-place  at  the  left.  These  gases  first  enter 
a  vault,  where  they  intermingle  and  cool  down  some 
what  ;  thence  they  ascend  through  the  openings  of  the 
brick  grating,  and  through  the  mass  of  peat  to  the  top 


PEAT   AS    FUEL.  155 

of  the  chamber.  On  their  way  they  become  charged  with 
vapor,  and  falling,  pass  off  through  the  chimney,  as  is  in 
dicated  by  the  arrows.  The  draught  is  regulated  by  the 
damper  on  the  top  of  the  chimney.  To  manage  the  fire, 
so  that  on  the  one  hand  the  chimney  is  sufficiently  heated 
to  create  a  draught,  and  on  the  other  waste  of  fuel,  or 
even  ignition  of  the  peat  itself  is  prevented,  requires  some 


o 

care. 


In  Welkner's  Peat  Kiln*  (fig.  22)  the  peat,  previously 
air-dried,  is  exposed  to  a  stream  of  hot  air,  until  it  is  com 
pletely  desiccated,  and  the  arrangement  is  such,  that  air- 
dried  peat  may  be  thrown  in  at  the  top,  and  the  hot-dried 
fuel  be  removed  at  the  bottom,  continuously. 

In  the  cut,  A  represents  the  section  of  a  wooden  cylinder 
about  10  feet  wide  and  6^  feet  deep,  which  surmounts  a 
funnel  of  iron  plate  A '.  The  mouth  of  the  funnel  is  closed 
by  a  door  n  •  about  20  inches  above  the  cloor  the  pipe  .Z?, 
which  conducts  hot  air,  terminates  in  the  ring  a  a,  through 
the  holes  in  which,  e  e,  it  is  distributed  into  the  funnel 
filled  with  peat.  The  air  is  driven  in  by  a  blower,  and  is 
heated  by  circulating  through  a  system  of  pipes,  which 
are  disposed  in  the  chimney  of  a  steamboiler.  From  time 
to  time  a  quantity  of  dried  peat  is  drawn  off  into  the 
wagon  7>,  which  runs  on  rails,  and  a  similar  amount  of 
undried  peat  is  thrown  in  above. 

According  to  Welkner,  a  kiln  of  the  dimensions  stated, 
which  cost,  about  $1800  gold,  is  capable  of  desiccating 
daily  ten  tons  of  peat  with  20  per  cent,  of  water,  using 
thereby  2000  cubic  feet  of  air  of  a  temperature  of  212° 
F.  When  the  air  is  heated  by  a  fire  kept  up  exclusively 
for  that  purpose,  10  per  cent,  of  the  dried  peat,  or  its 
equivalent,  is  consumed  in  the  operation.  At  the  Alexis 
Smelting  Works,  near  Lingen,  in  Hanover,  this  peat  kiln 


Bomemarm  &  KeiTs  Berg  un>!  H'lettenmaennische  Zeitung,  1862,  221. 


156 


PEAT   AXD    ITS    USES. 


furnishes  about  half  the  fuel  for  a  high  furnace,  in  which 
bog  iron  ore  is  smelted.  The  drying  costs  but  little,  since 
half  the  requisite  heat  is  obtained  from  the  waste  heat  of 
the  furnace  itself. 

The  advantages  of  this  drying  kiln  are,  that  it  is  cheap 
in   construction   and  working;   dries  gradually  and  uni- 


£.  £3.—  WELKNEK'S  PEAT  DRYING  KILN. 


formly  ;  occupies  little  ground,  and  runs  without  inter 
mission. 

Other  drying  ovens  are  described  in  Knapp's  Lehrbuch 
der  Chemiachen  Technologie,  3.  Ann.  Bd.  1,  Theil  1,  pp. 
178-9;  Jahrbuch  der  Bergakademien  Schemnitz  und 
Leoben,  1860,  \\  108,  1861,  p.  55;  Wagner's  Jahres- 


PEAT    AS    FUEL.  157 

bericht  der  Chemischen  Technologic,  1863,  p.  748;  Zer- 
renner's  Metallurgische  Gasfeuerung  in  Oesterreich ;  Tun- 
ner's  Stabeisen-  und  Stahlbereitung,  2.  Auflage,  Bd.  1, 
pp.  23-25. 

15.     Peat  Coal,  or  Coke. 

When  peat  is  charred,  it  yields  a  coal  or  coke  which, 
being  richer  in  carbon,  is  capable  of  giving  an  intenser 
heat  than  peat  itself,  in  the  same  way  that  charcoal  emits 
an  intenser  heat  in  its  combustion  than  the  wood  from 
which  it  is  made. 

Peat  coal  has  been  and  is  employed  to  some  extent  in 
metallurgical  processes,  as  a  substitute  for  charcoal,  and 
when  properly  prepared  from  good  peat,  is  in  no  way  in 
ferior  to  the  latter ;  is,  in  fact,  better. 

It  is  only,  however,  from  peat  which  naturally  dries  to 
a  hard  and  dense  consistency,  or  which  has  been  solidi 
fied  on  tho  principles  of  Challeton's  and  Weber's  meth 
ods,  that  a  coal  can  be  made  possessing  the  firmness  ne 
cessary  for  furnace  use.  Fibrous  peat,  or  that  condensed 
by  pressure,  as  in  Exter's,  Elsberg's,  and  the  Lithuanian 
process,  yields  by  coking  or  charring,  a  friable  coal  com 
paratively  unsuited  for  heating  purposes. 

A  peat  which  is  dense  as  the  result  of  proper  mechani 
cal  treatment  and  slow  drying,  yields  a  very  homogeneous 
and  compact  coal,  superior  to  any  wood  charcoal,  the  best 
qualities  weighing  nearly  twice  as  much  per  bushel. 

Peat  is  either  charred  in  pits  and  heaps,  or  in  kilns. 
From  the  regularity  of  the  rectangular  blocks  into  which 
peat  is  usually  formed,  it  may  be  charred  more  easily  in 
pits  than  wood,  since  the  blocks  admit  of  closer  packing 
in  the  heap,  and  because  the  peat  coal  is  less  inflammable 
than  wood  coal.  The  heaps  may  likewise  be  made  much 
smaller  than  is  needful  in  case  of  wood,  viz. :  six  to  eight 
feet  in  diameter,  and  four  feet  high.  The  pit  is  arranged 


158  PEAT    AND    ITS    USES. 

as  follows :  The  ground  is  selected  and  prepared  as  for 
charcoal  burning,  and  should  be  elevated,  dry  and  com 
pact.  Three  stout  poles  are  firmly  driven  into  the  ground, 
so  as  to  stand  vertically  and  equi-distant  from  each  other, 
leaving  within  them  a  space  of  six  or  eight  inches. 
Around  these  poles  the  peats  are  placed  endwise,  in  con 
centric  rows  to  the  required  width  and  height,  leaving  at 
the  bottom  a  number  of  air-channels  of  the  width  of  one 
peat,  radiating  from  the  centre  outwards.  The  upper  lay 
ers  of  peat  are  narrowed  in  so  as  to  round  off  the  heap, 
which  is  first  covered  with  dry  leaves,  sods,  or  moss,  over 
which  a  layer  of  soil  is  thrown.  Dry,  light  wood  being 
placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  central  shaft,  it  is  kindled 
from  one  of  the  canals  at  the  bottom,  and  the  charring  is 
conducted  as  is  usual  in  making  wood  coal.  The  yield 
of  coal  ranges  from  25  to  35  per  cent,  of  the  peat  by 
weight,  and  from  30  to  50  per  cent,  by  volume. 

Gysser  recommends  to  mould  the  peat  for  charring  in 
the  form  of  cylinders  of  3  to  4  feet  long,  which,  when 
dry,  may  be  built  up  into  a  heap  like  wood. 

A  great  variety  of  ovens  or  kilns  have  been  constructed 
for  coking  peat. 

At  the  Gun  Factory  of  Oberndorf,  in  Wirtemberg, 
peat  is  charred  in  the  kiln  represented  in  the  accompany 
ing  figure.  The  chamber  is  9  feet  high,  and  5£  feet  in  di 
ameter.  The  oven  proper,  b  #,  is  surrounded  by  a  mantle 
of  brick  a  a,  and  the  space  between,  c  c,  is  filled  with  sand. 
Each  wall,  as  well  as  the  space,  is  15  inches  in  thickness, 
and  the  walls  are  connected  by  stones  d  d,  at  intervals 
of  three  feet.  Above  the  sole  of  the  kiln,  are  three  series 
of  air  holes,  made  by  imbedding  old  gun  barrels  in  the 
walls.  The  door,  which  serves  to  empty  the  kiln,  is  a 
plate  of  cast  iron,  the  sides  of  its  frame  are  wider  than 
the  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  by  means  of  a  board  e,  a 
box  m  can  be  made  in  front  of  the  door,  which  is  filled 


PEAT    AS    FUEL. 


153 


with  sand  to  prevent  access  of  air.  The  peat  is  filled  in 
through  i,  a  channel  being  arranged  across  the  bottom  of 
the  kiln,  from  the  door  /,  for  kindling.  When  the  firing 
begins,  the  lowest  air-holes  and  i  are  open.  When, 
through  the  lower  gun  barrels,  the  peat  is  seen  to  be  ig 
nited,  these  are  corked,  and  those  above  are  opened. 
When  the  smoke  ceases  to  escape  above,  all  the  openings 
are  closed,  m  is  filled  with  sand,  i  is  covered  over  with  it, 
and  the  whole  is  left  to  cool.  It  requires  about  8  to  9 
days  to  finish  the  charring  of  a  charge.  Several  kilns  are 
kept  in  operation,  so  that  the  work  proceeds  uninterrupt 
edly. 


FiiT.  23. — OBERNDORFER   PEAT    CHARRING   KILN. 

At  Staltach,  Weber  prepares  peat  coal  in  a  cylinder  of 
sheet  iron,  which  is  surrounded  by  masonry.  Below,  it 
rests  on  a  grating  of  stout  wire.  Above,  it  has  a  cover, 
that  may  be  raised  by  a  pulley  and  on  one  side  is  attached  a 
small  furnace,  figure  24,  the  draught  of  which  is  kept  up  by 
means  of  a  blower,  or  an  exhauster,  and  the  flame  and  hot 


160 


PEAT   AXD   ITS    USES. 


gases  from  it,  which  contain  no  excess  of  oxygen,  play 
upon  the  peat   and  decompose  it,  expelling  its  volatile 

portions  without    burning   or 
wasting  it  in  the  slightest  de 
gree.     The  construction  of  the 
furnace,  see  fig.  24,  is  such,  that 
the    sticks    of    wood,    which 
are    employed    for    fuel,    are 
supported   at    their   ends    on 
shoulders  in   the   brick- work, 
Fig.  24.— WEBER'S  CHARRING      an(l    tne    draught    enters    the 
FURNACE.— TRANSVERSE  SECTION,  fire  above   instead    of  below. 
The  wood  is  hereby  completely  consumed,  and  by  regulat 
ing  the  supply  of  air  at  a  (fig.  25)  by  a  sliding  cover,  and  at 


Fig.  35.— WEBER'S  CHARRING  FURNACE.— LONGITUDINAL  SECTION. 


b  by  a  register,  the  flame  and  current  of  air  which  enters 
the  cylinder  containing  the  peat,  is  intensely  hot  and  ac 
complishes  a  rapid  carbonization  of  the  peat,  but  as  before 


PEAT   AS   FUEL.  161 

stated,  does  not  burn  it.  In  this  furnace  the  wood,  which 
is  cut  of  uniform  length,  is  itself  the  grate,  since  iron 
would  melt  or  rapidly  burn  out ;  and  the  coals  that  fall 
are  consumed  by  the  air  admitted  through  c.  The  hot 
gases  which  enter  the  cylinder  filled  with  peat  near  its 
top,  are  distributed  by  pipes,  and,  passing  off  through 
the  grating  at  the  bottom,  enter  the  surrounding  brick 
mantle.  Before  reaching  the  exhaustor,  however,  they 
pass  through  a  cooler  in  which  a  quantity  of  tar  and 
pyroligneous  acid  is  collected. 

Weber's  oven  is  15  feet  in  diameter,  and  3!  feet  high ; 
528  cubic  feet  of  peat  may  be  coked  in  it  in  the  space  of 
15  hours.  The  wood  furnace  is  2  feet  in  section,  and  con 
sumes  for  the  above  amount  of  peat  3j  cwt.  of  wood.  So 
perfectly  are  the  contents  of  the  iron  cylinder  protected 
from  contact  of  oxygen,  that  a  rabbit  placed  within  it, 
has  been  converted  into  coal  without  the  singeing  of  a 
hair ;  and  a  bouquet  of  flowers  has  been  carbonized,  per 
fectly  retaining  its  shape.  The  yield  of  coal  in  Weber's 
oven  is  nearly  50  per  cent,  of  the  peat  by  weight. 

Whenever  possible,  charring  of  peat  should  be  carried 
on,  or  aided  by  waste  heat,  or  the  heat  necessary  to  coking 
should  be  itself  economized.  In  manufacturing  and 
metallurgical  establishments,  a  considerable  economy  in 
both  the  drying  and  coking  may  often  be  effected  in  this 
manner. 

On  the  bog  of  Allen,  in  Ireland,  we  have  an  example 
of  this  kind.  Peat  is  placed  in  iron  ovens  in  the  form  of 
truncated  pyramids,  the  bottoms  of  which  consist  of  mov 
able  and  perforated  iron  plates.  The  ovens  are  mounted 
on  wheels,  and  run  on  a  rail  track. 

Five  ovens  filled  with  peat  are  run  into  a  pit  in  a  dry 
ing  house,  in  which  blocks  of  fresh  peat  are  arranged  for 
drying.  Each  oven  is  connected  with  a  flue,  and  fire  is 
applied.  The  peat  burns  belo\v,  and  the  heat  grnerated 


162  PEAT    AND    ITS    USES. 

in  the  coking,  warms  the  air  of  the  drying  house.  When 
the  escaping  smoke  becomes  transparent,  the  pit  in  which 
the  ovens  stand  is  filled  with  water  slightly  above  their 
lower  edges,  whereby  access  of  air  to  the  burning  peat  is 
at  once  cut  off.  When  cool,  the  ovens  are  run  out  and 
replaced  by  others  filled  with  peat.  Each  oven  holds 
about  600  Ibs.  of  peat,  and  the  yield  of  coal  is  25  per  Gent. 
by  weight.  The  small  yield  compared  with  that  obtained 
by  Weber's  method,  is  due  to  the  burning  of  the  peat  and 
the  coal  itself,  in  the  draught  of  air  that  passes  through 
the  ovens. 

The  author  has  carbonized,  in  an  iron  retort,  specimens 
of  peat  prepared  by  Elsberg's,  Leavitt's,  and  Aschcroft 
and  Betteley's  processes.  Elsberg's  gave  35,  the  others 
37  per  cent,  of  coal.  The  coal  from  Elsberg's  peat  was 
gre-itly  fissured,  and  could  be  crushed  in  the  fingers  to 
small  fragments.  That  from  the  other  peats  was  more 
firm,  and  required  considerable  exertion  to  break  it.  All 
had  a  decided  metallic  brilliancy  of  surface. 

16. — Metallurgical  Uses  of  Peat. 

In  Austria,  more  than  any  other  country,  peat  has  been 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  iron.  In  Bavaria,  Prussia, 
Wirtemberg,  Hanover,  and  Sweden,  and  latterly  in  Great 
Britain,  peat  has  been  put  to  the  same  use.  The  general 
results  of  experience,  are  as  follows:  — 

Peat  can  only  be  employed  to  advantage,  when  wood 
and  mineral  coal  are  expensive,  or  of  poor  quality. 

Peat  can  be  used  in  furnaces  adapted  for  charcoal,  but 
not  in  those  built  for  mineral  coal. 

Good  air-dry  peat,  containing  20  to  30  per  cent,  of  wa 
ter,  in  some  cases  may  replace  a  share  of  charcoal  in  the 
high  furnace. 

At  Pillersee,  in  Austria,  spathic  iron  ore  has  been  re 
duced  by  a  mixture  of  fir-wood  charcoal,  and  air-dry  peat 


PEAT   AS    FUEL.  163 

in  the  proportions  of  three  parts  by  bulk  of  the  former  to 
one  of  the  Litter.  The  use  of  peat  was  found  to  effect  a 
considerable  saving  in  the  outlay  for  fuel,  and  enabled  the 
production  to  be  somewhat  increased,  while  the  excellence 
of  the  iron  was  in  no  way  impaired.  The  peat  was  of  the 
best  quality,  and  was  worked  and  moulded  by  hand. 

When  the  ore  is  refractory  and  contains  impurities  that 
must  be  fluxed  and  worked  off  in  slag,  a  large  proportion 
of  air-dry  peat  cannot  be  used  to  advantage,  because  the 
evaporation  of  the  water  in  it  consumes  so  much  heat, 
that  the  requisite  temperature  is  not  easily  attained. 

At  Achthal,  in  Bavaria,  air-dry  peat  was  employed  in 
1860,  to  replace  a  portion  of  the  fir  wood  charcoal,  which 
had  been  used  for  smelting  an  impure  clay-iron-stone:  the 
latter  fuel  having  become  so  dear,  that  peat  was  resorted 
to  as  a  make  shift.  Instead  of  one  "  sack,"  or  83  cubic  feet 
of  charcoal,  24  cubic  feet  of  charcoal  and  15  cubic  feet  of 
peat  were  employed  in  each  charge,  and  the  quantity  of  ore 
had  to  "be  diminished  thereby,  so  that  the  yield  of  pig  was 
reduced,  on  the  average,  by  about  17  per  cent.  In  this  case 
the  quality  of  the  iron,  when  worked  into  bar,  was  injured 
by  the  use  of  peat,  obviously  from  an  increase  of  its  con 
tent  of  phosphorus.  The  exclusive  use  of  air-dry  peat  as 
fuel  in  the  high  furnace,  appears  to  be  out  of  the  question. 

At  Ransko,  in  Bohemia,  kiln-dried  peat,  nearly  alto 
gether  free  from  water,  has  been  employed  in  a  high  furn 
ace,  mixed  with  but  one-third  its  bulk  of  charcoal,  and  in 
cupola  furnace.s  for  re-melting  pig,  full-dried  peat  has  been 
used  alone,  answering  the  purpose  perfectly. 

The  most  important  metallurgical  application  of  peat  is 
in  the  refining  of  iron. 

Dried  peat  is  extensively  used  in  puddling  furnaces, 
especially  in  the  so-called  gas  puddling  furnaces,  in  Carin- 
thia,  Steyermark,  Silesia,  Bavaria,  Wirtemberg,  Swreden, 


164  PEAT   AND   ITS    USES. 

and  other  parts  of  Europe.      In  Steyermark,  peat    has 
been  thus  employed  for  25  years. 

Air-dry  peat  is,  indeed,  also  employed,  but  is  not  so 
well  adapted  for  puddling,  as  its  water  burns  away  a  nota 
ble  quantity  of  iron.  It  is  one  of  the  best  known  facts  in 
chemistry,  that  ignited  iron  is  rapidly  oxidized  in  a  stream 
of  water-vapor,  free  hydrogen  being  at  the  same  time 
evolved. 

In  the  high  furnace,  peat-coal,  when  compact  and  firm 
(not  crumbly)  may  replace  charcoal  perfectly,  but  its  cost 
is  usually  too  great. 

When  peat  or  peat-coal  is  employed  in  smelting,  it  must 
be  as  free  as  possible  from  ash,  because  the  ash  usually 
consists  largely  of  silica,  and  this  must  be  worked  off  by 
flux.  If  the  ash  be  carbonate  of  lime,  it  will,  in  most 
cases,  serve  itself  usefully  as  flux.  In  hearth  puddling, 
it  is  important  not  only  that  the  peat  or  peat-coal  con 
tain  little  ash,  but  especially  that  the  ash  be  as  free  as 
possible  from  sulphates  and  phosphates,  which  act  so  de- 
ieteriously  on  the  metal.  The  notion  that,  in  general, 
peat  and  peat  charcoal  are  peculiarly  adapted  for  the  iron 
manufacture,  because  they  are  free  from  sulphur  and 
phosphorus,  is  extremely  erroneous.  Not  infrequently 
they  contain  these  bodies  in  such  quantity,  as  to  forbid 
their  use  in  smelting. 

In  the  gas-puddling  furnace,  or  in  the  ordinary  rever- 
beratory,  impure  peat  may,  however,  be  employed,  since 
the  ashes  do  not  come  in  contact  with  the  rnqjal.  The  only 
disadvantage  in  the  use  of  peat  in  these  furnaces  is,  that 
the  grates  require  cleaning  more  frequently,  which  inter 
rupts  the  fire,  and,  according  to  Tunner,  increases  the  con 
sumption  of  fuel  8  to  10  per  cent.,  and  diminishes  the 
amount  of  metal  that  can  be  turned  out  in  a  given  time 
by  the  same  quantity. 


PEAT   AS   FUEL.  165 

Notwithstanding  the  interruption  of  work,  it  has  been 
found,  at  Rothburga,  in  Austria,  that  by  substitution  of 
machine-made  and  kiln-dried  peat  for  wood  in  the  gas-pud 
dling  furnace,  a  saving  of  50  per  cent,  in  the  cost  of  bar 
iron  was  effected,  in  1860.  What  is  to  the  point,  in  esti 
mating  the  economy  of  peat,  is  the  fact  that  while  6.2 
cubic  feet  of  dry  fir-wood  were  required  to  produce  100 
Ibs.  of  crude  bar,  this  quantity  of  iron  could  be  puddled 
with  4.3  cubic  feet  of  peat. 

In  the  gas  furnace,  a  second  blast  of  air  is  thrown  into 
the  flame,  effecting  its  complete  combustion ;  Dellvik  as 
serts,  that  at  Lesjceforss,  in  Sweden,  100  Ibs.  of  kiln- 
dried  peat  are  equal  to  197  Ibs.  of  kiln-dried  wood  in 
heavy  forging.  In  an  ordinary  fire,  the  peat  would  be 
less  effective  from  the  escape  of  unburned  carbon  in  the 
smoke. 

In  other  metallurgical  and  manufacturing  operations 
where  flame  is  required,  as  well  as  in  those  which  are  not 
inconvenienced  by  the  ingredients  of  its  ash,  it  is  obvious 
that  peat  can  be  employed  when  circumstances  conspire 
to  render  its  use  economical. 

17. — Peat  as  a  source  of  illuminating  gas. 

Prof.  Pettenkofer,  of  Munich,  was  the  first  to  succeed 
in  making  illuminating  gas  from  wood  ;  and  peat,  when 
operated  according  to  his  method,  furnishes  also  a  gas  of 
good  quality,  though  somewhat  inferior  to  wood-gas  in 
illuminating  power. 

It  is  essential,  that  well-dried  peat  be  employed,  and 
the  waste  heat  from  the  retorts  may  serve  in  part,  at  least, 
for  the  drying. 

The  retorts  must  be  of  a  good  conducting  material ; 
therefore  cast  iron  is  better  than  clay.  They  are  made  of 
the  ft  form,  and  must  be  relatively  larger  than  those 


166  PEAT   AND    ITS    USES. 

used  for  coal.  A  retort  of  two  feet  width,  one  foot  depth, 
and  8  to  9  feet  length,  must  receive  but  100  Ibs.  of  peat  at 
a  charge. 

The  quantity  of  gas  yielded  in  a  given  time,  is  much 
greater  than  from  bituminous  coal.  From  retorts  of  the 
size  just  named,  8000  to  9000  cubic  feet  of  gas  are  deliv 
ered  in  24  hours.  The  exit  pipes  must,  therefore,  be  large, 
not  less  than  5  to  6  inches,  and  the  coolers  must  be  much 
more  effective  than  is  needful  for  coal  gas,  in  order  to 
separate  from  it  the  tarry  matters. 

The  number  of  retorts  requisite  to  furnish  a  given  vol 
ume  of  gas,  is  much  less  than  in  the  manufacture  from 
coal.  On  the  other  hand,  the  dimensions  of  the  furnace 
are  considerably  greater,  because  the  consumption  of  fuel 
must  be  more  rapid,  in  order  to  supply  the  heat,  which  is 
carried  off  by  the  copious  formation  of  gas. 

Gas  may  be  made  from  peat  at  a  comparatively  low 
temperature,  but  its  illuminating  power  is  then  trifli.ig. 
At  a  rtd  heat  alone  can  we  procure  a  gas  of  good  quality. 

The  chief  impurity  of  peat-gas  is  carbonic  acid :  this 
amounts  to  25  to  30  per  cent,  of  the  gas  before  purifica 
tion,  and  if  the  peat  be  insufficiently  dried,  it  is  consider 
ably  more.  The  quantity  of  slaked  lime  that  is  consumed 
in  purifying,  is  therefore  much  greater  than  is  needed  for 
coal-gas,  and  is  an  expensive  item  in  the  making  of  peat-gas. 

While  wood-gas  is  practically  free  from  sulphur  com 
pounds  and  ammonia,  peat-gas  may  contain  them  both, 
especially  the  latter,  in  quantity  that  depends  upon  the 
composition  of  the  peat,  which,  as  regards  sulphur  and 
nitrogen,  is  very  variable. 

Peat-gas  is  denser  than  coal-gas,  and  therefore  cannot 
be  burned  to  advantage  except  from  considerably  wider 
orifices  than  answer  for  the  latter,  and  under  slight  pres 
sure. 

The  above  statements  show  the  absurdity  of  judging 


TEAT    AS   FUEL.  167 

of  the  value  of  peat  as  a  source  of  gas,  by  the  results  of 
trials  made  in  gas  works  arranged  for  bituminous  coal. 

As  to  the  yield  of  gas  we  have  the  following  data, 
weights  and  measures  being  English  :  — 

100  Ibs.  of  peat  of  medium  quality  from  Munich,  gave  REISSIG  303  cub.  ft. 

"          air-dry  peat  from  Biermoos,  Salzburg,  gave  RIEDFNGBR   305      " 

"  very  light  fibrous  peat,  pave  RETSSIG 379  to  430      " 

"          Exter's  rnaclihie-peat,  from  Haspelmoor,  gave 367      " 

Thenius  states,  that,  to  produce  1000  English  cubic  feet 
of  purified  peat-gas,  in  the  works  at  Kempten,  Bavaria, 
there  are  required  in  the  retorts  292  Ibs  of  peat.  To  dis 
til  this,  138^  Ibs.  of  peat  are  consumed  in  the  fire;  and  to 
purify  the  gas  from  carbonic  acid,  9H  Ibs.  of  lime  are  used. 
In  the  retorts  remain  117  Ibs.  of  peat  coal,  and  nearly  6 
Ibs.  of  tar  are  collected  in  the  operation,  besides  smaller 
quantities  of  acetic  acid  and  ammonia. 

According  to  Stammer,  4  cwt.  of  dry  peat  are  required 
for  1000  cubic  feet  of  purified  gas. 

The  quality  of  the  gas  is  somewhat  better  than  that 
made  from  bituminous  coal. 

18. —  Tlie  examination  of  Peat  as  to  its  value  for  Fuel, 
begins  with  and  refers  to  the  air-dry  substance,  in  which : 

1. — Water  is  estimated,  by  drying  the  pulverized  peat, 
at  212°,  as  long  as  any  diminution  of  weight  occurs. 
Well-dried  peat-fuel  should  not  contain  more  than  20  per 
cent,  of  water.  On  the  other  hand  it  cannot  contain  less 
than  15  per  cent.,  except  it  has  been  artificially  dried  at  a 
high  temperature,  or  kept  for  a  long  time  in  a  heated 
apartment. 

2. — Ash  is  estimated  by  carefully  burning  the  dry  resi 
due  in  1.  In  first-rate  fuel,  it  should  amount  to  less  than 
3  per  cent.  If  more  than  8  per  cent.,  the  peat  is  thereby 
rendered  of  inferior  quality,  though  peat  is  employed 
which  contains  considerably  more. 


168  PEAT   AND   ITS   USES. 

3.  —  Sulphur  and  phosphorus  are  estimated  by  pro 
cesses,  which  it  would  be  useless  to  describe  here.  Only 
in  case  of  vitriol  peats  is  so  much  sulphur  present,  that  it 
is  recognizable  by  the  suffocating  fumes  of  sulphuric  acid 
or  of  sulphurous  acid,  which  escape  in  the  burning.  When 
peat  is  to  be  employed  for  iron  manufacture,  or  under 
steam  boilers,  its  phosphorus,  and  especially  its  sulphur, 
should  be  estimated,  as  they  injure  the  quality  of  iron 
when  their  quantity  exceeds  a  certain  small  amount,  and 
have  a  destructive  effect  on  grate-bars  and  boilers.  For 
common  uses  it  is  unnecessary  to  regard  these  substances. 

4. — The  quantity  of  coal  or  coke  yielded  by  peat,  is  de 
termined  by  heating  a  weighed  quantity  of  the  peat  to 
redness  in  an  iron  retort,  or  in  a  large  platinum  crucible, 
until  gases  cease  to  escape.  The  neck  of  the  retort  is 
corked,  and  when  the  vessel  is  cool,  the  coal  is  removed 
and  weighed.  In  case  a  platinum  crucible  is  employed,  it 
should  have  a  tight-fitting  cover,  and  when  gases  cease  to 
escape,  the  crucible  is  quickly  cooled  by  placing  it  in  cold 
water. 

Coal,  or  coke,  includes  of  course  the  ash  of  the  peat. 
This,  being  variable,  should  be  deducted,  and  the  ash-free 
cool  be  considered  in  comparing  fuels. 

5. — The  density  of  peat-fuel  may  be  ascertained  by  cut 
ting  out  a  block  that  will  admit  of  accurate  measurement, 
calculating  its  cubic  contents,  and  comparing  its  weight 
with  that  of  an  equal  bulk  of  water.  To  avoid  calcula 
tion,  the  block  may  be  made  accurately  one  or  several 
cubic  inches  in  dimensions  and  weighed.  The  cubic  inch 
of  water  at  60°  F.,  weighs  252|  grains. 


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